Chemistry - Open Text Book

https://cnx.org/contents/havxkyvS@12.1:uXg0kUa-@5/Introduction





Preface
1 Essential Ideas
Introduction
1.1 Chemistry in Context   Chemistry in Context
1.2 Phases and Classification of Matter
1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
1.4 Measurements
1.5 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision
1.6 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Introduction
2.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory
2.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory
2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism
2.4 Chemical Formulas
2.5 The Periodic Table
2.6 Molecular and Ionic Compounds
2.7 Chemical Nomenclature
3 Composition of Substances and Solutions
Introduction
3.1 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept
3.2 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas
3.3 Molarity
3.4 Other Units for Solution Concentrations
4 Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
Introduction
4.1 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
4.2 Classifying Chemical Reactions
4.3 Reaction Stoichiometry
4.4 Reaction Yields
4.5 Quantitative Chemical Analysis
5 Thermochemistry
Introduction
5.1 Energy Basics
5.2 Calorimetry
5.3 Enthalpy
6 Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements
Introduction
6.1 Electromagnetic Energy
6.2 The Bohr Model
6.3 Development of Quantum Theory
6.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations)
6.5 Periodic Variations in Element Properties
7 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry
Introduction
7.1 Ionic Bonding
7.2 Covalent Bonding
7.3 Lewis Symbols and Structures
7.4 Formal Charges and Resonance
7.5 Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds
7.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity
8 Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding
Introduction
8.1 Valence Bond Theory
8.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals
8.3 Multiple Bonds
8.4 Molecular Orbital Theory
9 Gases
Introduction
9.1 Gas Pressure
9.2 Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law
9.3 Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions
9.4 Effusion and Diffusion of Gases
9.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
9.6 Non-Ideal Gas Behavior
10 Liquids and Solids
Introduction
10.1 Intermolecular Forces
10.2 Properties of Liquids
10.3 Phase Transitions
10.4 Phase Diagrams
10.5 The Solid State of Matter
10.6 Lattice Structures in Crystalline Solids
11 Solutions and Colloids
Introduction
11.1 The Dissolution Process
11.2 Electrolytes
11.3 Solubility
11.4 Colligative Properties
11.5 Colloids
12 Kinetics
Introduction
12.1 Chemical Reaction Rates
12.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
12.3 Rate Laws
12.4 Integrated Rate Laws
12.5 Collision Theory
12.6 Reaction Mechanisms
12.7 Catalysis
13 Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts
Introduction
13.1 Chemical Equilibria
13.2 Equilibrium Constants
13.3 Shifting Equilibria: Le Châtelier’s Principle
13.4 Equilibrium Calculations
14 Acid-Base Equilibria
Introduction
14.1 Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
14.2 pH and pOH
14.3 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
14.4 Hydrolysis of Salt Solutions
14.5 Polyprotic Acids
14.6 Buffers
14.7 Acid-Base Titrations
15 Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes
Introduction
15.1 Precipitation and Dissolution
15.2 Lewis Acids and Bases
15.3 Multiple Equilibria
16 Thermodynamics
Introduction
16.1 Spontaneity
16.2 Entropy
16.3 The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics
16.4 Free Energy
17 Electrochemistry
Introduction
17.1 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
17.2 Galvanic Cells
17.3 Standard Reduction Potentials
17.4 The Nernst Equation
17.5 Batteries and Fuel Cells
17.6 Corrosion
17.7 Electrolysis
18 Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals
Introduction
18.1 Periodicity
18.2 Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals
18.3 Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids
18.4 Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals
18.5 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen
18.6 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates
18.7 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen
18.8 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Phosphorus
18.9 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen
18.10 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Sulfur
18.11 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Halogens
18.12 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases
19 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry
Introduction
19.1 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Transition Metals and Their Compounds
19.2 Coordination Chemistry of Transition Metals
19.3 Spectroscopic and Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
20 Organic Chemistry
Introduction
20.1 Hydrocarbons
20.2 Alcohols and Ethers
20.3 Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters
20.4 Amines and Amides
21 Nuclear Chemistry
Introduction
21.1 Nuclear Structure and Stability
21.2 Nuclear Equations
21.3 Radioactive Decay
21.4 Transmutation and Nuclear Energy
21.5 Uses of Radioisotopes
21.6 Biological Effects of Radiation
The Periodic Table
Essential Mathematics
Units and Conversion Factors
Fundamental Physical Constants
Water Properties
Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases
Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances
Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
Ionization Constants of Weak Bases
Solubility Products
Formation Constants for Complex Ions
Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials
Half-Lives for Several Radioactive Isotopes


The Scientific Method

Chemistry is a science based on observation and experimentation. Doing chemistry involves attempting to answer questions and explain observations in terms of the laws and theories of chemistry, using procedures that are accepted by the scientific community. There is no single route to answering a question or explaining an observation, but there is an aspect common to every approach: Each uses knowledge based on experiments that can be reproduced to verify the results. Some routes involve a hypothesis, a tentative explanation of observations that acts as a guide for gathering and checking information. We test a hypothesis by experimentation, calculation, and/or comparison with the experiments of others and then refine it as needed.

Some hypotheses are attempts to explain the behavior that is summarized in laws. The laws of science summarize a vast number of experimental observations, and describe or predict some facet of the natural world. If such a hypothesis turns out to be capable of explaining a large body of experimental data, it can reach the status of a theory. Scientific theories are well-substantiated, comprehensive, testable explanations of particular aspects of nature. Theories are accepted because they provide satisfactory explanations, but they can be modified if new data become available. The path of discovery that leads from question and observation to law or hypothesis to theory, combined with experimental verification of the hypothesis and any necessary modification of the theory, is called the scientific method.
 Chemistry in Context