JEE syllabus
Gaseous and liquid states:
Absolute scale of temperature,
ideal gas equation;
Deviation from ideality,
van der Waals equation;
Kinetic theory of gases, average,
root mean square and most probable velocities and their relation with temperature; Law of partial pressures;
Vapour pressure;
Diffusion of gases.
Solid state:
Classification of solids,
crystalline state,
seven crystal systems (cell parameters a, b, c, alpha, beta, gamma),
close packed structure of solids (cubic), packing in fcc, bcc and hcp lattices; Nearest neighbours,
ionic radii,
simple ionic compounds,
point defects.
----------------------
pV = nRT
Vander Waals correction
[p + n²a/V²] [V-nb] = nRT
Graham's Law of Diffusion: The rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its density or molar mass.
Liquids
Vapour pressure
Teh vapour pressure of a liquid may be defined as the pressure of vapour in equilibrium with the liquid. It increases with increase in temperature.
Solid State
Solids can be broadly classified into two categories: crystalline and amorphous.
Classification crystalline solids based on bond type:
Molecular
ionic
covalent
metallic
a space lattice represents a three dimensional translational repetition of the centres of gravity of the units of pattern in the crystals by means of points. These points are called lattice points.
Unit cell: A unit cell represents a parallelopiped obtained by connecting the lattice point such that each parallelopiped contains a complete unit of pattern of the crystal. By stacking of the parallelopipeds the entire crystal structure can be generated.
Parameters to describe a unit cell: Six parameters are required. These are the three basic vectors along three crystallographic axes(a,b, and c) and three angles between the crystallographic axes(α,β,γ).
Based on the presence of certain rotation axes in the unit cell, crystals can be classifed into seven categories
Triclinic
Monoclinic
Orthoclinic
Trigonal
Tetragonal
Hexagonal
packing of crystals; Body centred cubic(bcc), Hexagonal closed packed 9hcp) and cubical close packed (ccp)
Point defects: Schottsky defects, Frenkel defects
Saturday, January 19, 2008
IIT JEE Ch.5. BONDING AND MOLECULAR STRUCTURE -Core Points
JEE Syllabus
Orbital overlap and covalent bond;
Hybridisation involving s, p and d orbitals only;
Orbital energy diagrams for homonuclear diatomic species;
Hydrogen bond;
Polarity in molecules, dipole moment (qualitative aspects only);
VSEPR model and shapes of molecules (linear, angular, triangular, square planar, pyramidal, square pyramidal, trigonal bipyramidal, tetrahedral and octahedral).
-------------------
Exceptions to octet rule
Hydrogen molecule only 2 electrons make it stable.
Incomplete octet of central atom
LiCl
BeH2
BeCl2
BH3
BF3
LiCl 4 electrons around central Li-atom
BeCl2 4 electrons around central Be-atom
BF3 6 electrons around central B-atom
Expanded octet of the central atom
PF5 has ten around P
SF6 hs twelve around S
IF7 has fourteen electrons around I
H2SO4 12 electrons around sulphur atoms
Odd elctron molecules
Nitric oxide, NO
Nitrogen 7 shared electrons
Oxygen 8
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2(there is a coordinate bond)
Nitrogen 7
both oxygens 8
------------------
Exceptions to octet rule
Hydrogen molecule only 2 electrons make it stable.
Incomplete octet of central atom
LiCl
BeH2
BeCl2
BH3
BF3
LiCl 4 electrons around central Li-atom
BeCl2 4 electrons around central Be-atom
BF3 6 electrons around central B-atom
Expanded octet of the central atom
PF5 has ten around P
SF6 hs twelve around S
IF7 has fourteen electrons around I
H2SO4 12 electrons around sulphur atoms
Odd elctron molecules
Nitric oxide, NO
Nitrogen 7 shared electrons
Oxygen 8
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2(there is a coordinate bond)
Nitrogen 7
both oxygens 8
Hydrogen Bonding
The attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with electronegative atom (F,O or N) of another molecule is known as hydrogen bond or hydrogen bonding.
VSEPR model and shapes of molecules
linear - 2 electron pairs
angular,
triangular,- 3 electron pairs
square planar,
pyramidal,
square pyramidal,
trigonal bipyramidal,
tetrahedral - 4 electron pairs
octahedral).
The relation between number of electron pairs around the central atom and shape of molecule to be filled
Orbital overlap and covalent bond;
Hybridisation involving s, p and d orbitals only;
Orbital energy diagrams for homonuclear diatomic species;
Hydrogen bond;
Polarity in molecules, dipole moment (qualitative aspects only);
VSEPR model and shapes of molecules (linear, angular, triangular, square planar, pyramidal, square pyramidal, trigonal bipyramidal, tetrahedral and octahedral).
-------------------
Exceptions to octet rule
Hydrogen molecule only 2 electrons make it stable.
Incomplete octet of central atom
LiCl
BeH2
BeCl2
BH3
BF3
LiCl 4 electrons around central Li-atom
BeCl2 4 electrons around central Be-atom
BF3 6 electrons around central B-atom
Expanded octet of the central atom
PF5 has ten around P
SF6 hs twelve around S
IF7 has fourteen electrons around I
H2SO4 12 electrons around sulphur atoms
Odd elctron molecules
Nitric oxide, NO
Nitrogen 7 shared electrons
Oxygen 8
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2(there is a coordinate bond)
Nitrogen 7
both oxygens 8
------------------
Exceptions to octet rule
Hydrogen molecule only 2 electrons make it stable.
Incomplete octet of central atom
LiCl
BeH2
BeCl2
BH3
BF3
LiCl 4 electrons around central Li-atom
BeCl2 4 electrons around central Be-atom
BF3 6 electrons around central B-atom
Expanded octet of the central atom
PF5 has ten around P
SF6 hs twelve around S
IF7 has fourteen electrons around I
H2SO4 12 electrons around sulphur atoms
Odd elctron molecules
Nitric oxide, NO
Nitrogen 7 shared electrons
Oxygen 8
Nitrogen dioxide, NO2(there is a coordinate bond)
Nitrogen 7
both oxygens 8
Hydrogen Bonding
The attractive force which binds hydrogen atom of one molecule with electronegative atom (F,O or N) of another molecule is known as hydrogen bond or hydrogen bonding.
VSEPR model and shapes of molecules
linear - 2 electron pairs
angular,
triangular,- 3 electron pairs
square planar,
pyramidal,
square pyramidal,
trigonal bipyramidal,
tetrahedral - 4 electron pairs
octahedral).
The relation between number of electron pairs around the central atom and shape of molecule to be filled
IIT JEE Ch. 6 ENERGETICS Core Points for Revision
JEE Syllabus
Energetics:
First law of thermodynamics;
Internal energy, work and heat,
pressure-volume work;
Enthalpy,
Hess's law;
Heat of reaction, fusion and vapourization;
Second law of thermodynamics;
Entropy;
Free energy;
Criterion of spontaneity.
------------------
First law of thermodynamics;
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
U = q + w
Internal energy of matter is equal to kinetic energy and potential energy.
The change in internal energy is equal to heat transferred and work done between the system and the surroundings.
Pressure volume work: If the pressure is constant and the matter expands, the work done is given by p * change in volume. This in termed as pressure volume work.
Enthalpy = U + pv
Hess's Law
Hess's Law states that the enthalpy change for a reaction that occurs in many steps is the same as if it occurred in one step. Another way to put this is if several reactions add up to some total reaction, then their enthalpy changes will add up to the enthalpy change for the total reaction.
Second law of thermodynamics
In general it is impossible to perform a transformation whose only final result is to convert into useful work heat extracted from a source that is at the same temperature throughout. This statement is Lord Kelvin's version of the second law of thermodynamics. Another version of this law, formulated by R. J. E. Clausius, states that a transformation is impossible whose only final result is to transfer heat from a body at a given temperature to a body at higher temperature; in other words, the spontaneous flow of heat from hot to cold bodies is reversible only with the expenditure of mechanical or other nonthermal energy.
The Second law of Thermodynamics states that every spontaneous change is accompanied by an increase in entropy which is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system.
Energetics:
First law of thermodynamics;
Internal energy, work and heat,
pressure-volume work;
Enthalpy,
Hess's law;
Heat of reaction, fusion and vapourization;
Second law of thermodynamics;
Entropy;
Free energy;
Criterion of spontaneity.
------------------
First law of thermodynamics;
Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
U = q + w
Internal energy of matter is equal to kinetic energy and potential energy.
The change in internal energy is equal to heat transferred and work done between the system and the surroundings.
Pressure volume work: If the pressure is constant and the matter expands, the work done is given by p * change in volume. This in termed as pressure volume work.
Enthalpy = U + pv
Hess's Law
Hess's Law states that the enthalpy change for a reaction that occurs in many steps is the same as if it occurred in one step. Another way to put this is if several reactions add up to some total reaction, then their enthalpy changes will add up to the enthalpy change for the total reaction.
Second law of thermodynamics
In general it is impossible to perform a transformation whose only final result is to convert into useful work heat extracted from a source that is at the same temperature throughout. This statement is Lord Kelvin's version of the second law of thermodynamics. Another version of this law, formulated by R. J. E. Clausius, states that a transformation is impossible whose only final result is to transfer heat from a body at a given temperature to a body at higher temperature; in other words, the spontaneous flow of heat from hot to cold bodies is reversible only with the expenditure of mechanical or other nonthermal energy.
The Second law of Thermodynamics states that every spontaneous change is accompanied by an increase in entropy which is a measure of the randomness or disorder of a system.
IIt JEE Ch. 7. CHEMICAL EQUILIBRIA - Core Points for Revision
JEE Syllabus
Chemical equilibrium:
Law of mass action;
Equilibrium constant,
Le Chatelier's principle (effect of concentration, temperature and pressure); Significance of ΔG and ΔGo in chemical equilibrium;
Solubility product, common ion effect,
pH and buffer solutions;
Acids and bases (Bronsted and Lewis concepts);
Hydrolysis of salts.
The syllabus has two main components: Equilibrium among ions and equilibrium among compounds
---------
There are reactions where one can see the reverse action also to be active and see the equilibrium point. In this case
A + B → C + D and
C+D → A+B both reactions keep taking place.
At the point of equilibrium the rate of both reactions is same. Formation of A+B is equal to consumption of A+B.
Rate of forward reaction = k-f[A][B]
Rate of reverse reaction or backward reaction = k-r[C][D]
Therefore k-f[A][B] = k-r[C]{D]
This gives k-f/k-r = [C]{D]/[A][B]
The equilibrium constant is always written as products by reactants.
For the a general reaction
aA + bB ↔ cC+dD (Normal two arrows are used for reversible reaction. Only one arrow with heads on both sides is used here to tide over the inability to show two arrows.)
k-eq = [C]^c[D]^d/[A]^a[B]^b
The equilibrium constant may or may not have units.
In the case of 2A ↔ 2B +C
The units of equilibrium constant are going to be: (mol/l)^2(mol/l)/(mol/l)^2
= mol/l
Ionic Equilibrium – Introduction
Acids, basess and salts when dissolved n water dissociate to some extent and form ions. In the ion formation, an equilibrium is established between ionized and unionized (whole) molecules as this ionization is a reversible reaction. Such an equilibrium that involves ions is called ionic equilibrium.
Acids and bases definitions (Arrhenius, Bronsted and Lewis)
Arrhenius defined acid as a hydrogen compound which in water solution give hydrogen ions.
He defined base as a hydroxide compound which in water solution gives hydroxide ions.
Lowry and Bronsted
An acid is defined as a substance having a tendency of lose or to donate one or more protons.
A base is defined as a substance having a tendency to accept or add a proton
Lewis Theory of Acids and Bases
Acid: An acid is any substance (molecule, ion or atom) that can accept a lone pair of electrons to form a coordinate bond (*Remember coordinate bond and lone pair topics in chapter on Bonding)
Base: Base is any species (molecule, ion or atom) that can donate a lone pair of electrons to form a co-ordinate bond.
Ostwald’s Dilution law
α = SQRT(K/C)
α = Total mole of acid or base dissociated/Total mole of acid or base present in the solution
Chemical equilibrium:
Law of mass action;
Equilibrium constant,
Le Chatelier's principle (effect of concentration, temperature and pressure); Significance of ΔG and ΔGo in chemical equilibrium;
Solubility product, common ion effect,
pH and buffer solutions;
Acids and bases (Bronsted and Lewis concepts);
Hydrolysis of salts.
The syllabus has two main components: Equilibrium among ions and equilibrium among compounds
---------
There are reactions where one can see the reverse action also to be active and see the equilibrium point. In this case
A + B → C + D and
C+D → A+B both reactions keep taking place.
At the point of equilibrium the rate of both reactions is same. Formation of A+B is equal to consumption of A+B.
Rate of forward reaction = k-f[A][B]
Rate of reverse reaction or backward reaction = k-r[C][D]
Therefore k-f[A][B] = k-r[C]{D]
This gives k-f/k-r = [C]{D]/[A][B]
The equilibrium constant is always written as products by reactants.
For the a general reaction
aA + bB ↔ cC+dD (Normal two arrows are used for reversible reaction. Only one arrow with heads on both sides is used here to tide over the inability to show two arrows.)
k-eq = [C]^c[D]^d/[A]^a[B]^b
The equilibrium constant may or may not have units.
In the case of 2A ↔ 2B +C
The units of equilibrium constant are going to be: (mol/l)^2(mol/l)/(mol/l)^2
= mol/l
Ionic Equilibrium – Introduction
Acids, basess and salts when dissolved n water dissociate to some extent and form ions. In the ion formation, an equilibrium is established between ionized and unionized (whole) molecules as this ionization is a reversible reaction. Such an equilibrium that involves ions is called ionic equilibrium.
Acids and bases definitions (Arrhenius, Bronsted and Lewis)
Arrhenius defined acid as a hydrogen compound which in water solution give hydrogen ions.
He defined base as a hydroxide compound which in water solution gives hydroxide ions.
Lowry and Bronsted
An acid is defined as a substance having a tendency of lose or to donate one or more protons.
A base is defined as a substance having a tendency to accept or add a proton
Lewis Theory of Acids and Bases
Acid: An acid is any substance (molecule, ion or atom) that can accept a lone pair of electrons to form a coordinate bond (*Remember coordinate bond and lone pair topics in chapter on Bonding)
Base: Base is any species (molecule, ion or atom) that can donate a lone pair of electrons to form a co-ordinate bond.
Ostwald’s Dilution law
α = SQRT(K/C)
α = Total mole of acid or base dissociated/Total mole of acid or base present in the solution
IIT JEE Ch.8 ELECTROCHEMISTRY - Core Point for Revision
JEE Syllabus
Electrochemistry:
Electrochemical cells and cell reactions;
Electrode potentials;
Nernst equation and its relation to ΔG;
Electrochemical series,
emf of galvanic cells;
Electrolysis
Faraday's laws of electrolysis;
Electrolytic conductance, specific, equivalent and molar conductance,
Kohlrausch's law;
Concentration cells.
---------------
electrochemical cell
or Voltaic or Galvanic Cells
In this cell, a chemical reaction produces electrical energy.
In this cell, the electrons being transferred from the reducing agent to the oxidizing agent travel through a wire and thus provide an elctric current.
a electrochemical cell is represented as
Ө Zn|ZnSO-4║CuSO-4|Cu In this symbol additionally On zinc side as it is a cathode a - sign is placed in O (as shown) and on Cu side as it is anode a + sign is placed in O.
cell reactions;
Reaction at the electrodes are called half cell reactions as both the elctrodes are kept seperate from physical contact and ion movement only is permitted through salt bridge.
At zinc electrode Zn → Zn^2+ +2e¯ (oxidation)
At Cu electrode: Cu^2+ +2e¯ → Cu (reduction)
Electrode potentials
When an electrode in put in solution of ions, a charge is developed between the solution and the electrode. This charge is termed a electrode potential. The electrode potential cannot be measured individually and it is measured in reference to a standard hydrogen electrode.
Standard Hydrogen Electrode
An electrode in which pure dry hydrogen gas is bubbled at 1 atm and 298K about a platinized platinum plate through a solution containing H^+ ions ( for example - HCl solution)
The emf produced is taken as zero volts. All other potential are expressed with SHE potential as zero.
Nernst Equation: The cell potential of a half cell (as well as that of a complete cell) depends upon the concentrations of involved ions, pressure of the gaseous species (if involved) and the temperature. The relation connecting them is given by the Nernst equation.
It is expressed as
E = E° - (RT/nF)ln Q°
Q° = Product of concentration (or pressure) of products each raised to the corresponding stochiometric number/Product of concentration (or pressure) of reactants each raised to the corresponding stochiometric number
n = number of electrons involved in the hall cell reaction
Electrochemical series is the series in which various elements are arranged in the order of their reduction or oxidation potentials.
Emf of galvanic cells
E(Cell) = E(R) - E(L)
Electrolysis
In electrolytic cell, electric energy is used to cause a chemical reaction to take place.
Faraday's laws of electrolysis:
---------------------------------------
Quantitative Relationships in Electrolytic Cells
Determining the amount of electrical energy necessary for accumulating a given amount material from the electrolytic cell.
First law: It states that the amount of any substance that is liberated at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte.
W α Q (w = weight of substance deposited and Q is charge = ampere * time)
Second law: It states tht when the same quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytes amount of different substances liberated or deposited at the different electrodes are directly proportional to the chemical equivalents9i.e., equivalent weight) of substances.
One faraday (F) is the amount of electrical energy required for flow of 1 mole of electrons.
To three significant digits, 1 faraday equals 96,500 coulombs(coul).
Current flow is measured in amperes (A)which is coulombs/seconds or coul/s,
Electrolytic conductance
The flow of electric current through an electrolytic solution is known as electrolytic conduction.
Electrolytic conduction also follows Ohm's law.
The equivalent conductivity of an electrolyte may be defined as the conductance of a volume of solution containing one equivalent mass of a dissolved substance when placed between two parallel electrodes which are at a unit distance apart, and large enough to contain between them the whole solution.
The molar conductivity of a solution gives the conducting power of ions produced by one molar mass of an electrolyte at any particular concentration.
Kohlrausch's Law on the independence of migrating ions: The molar conductivity of an electrolyte equals the sum of the molar conductivities of the cations and the anions; n = number of anions or cations.
Λ = v+Λ+ + vˉΛˉ
Concentration cells.
Concentration Cells are electrochemical cells that have two equivalent half-cells of the same material differing only in concentrations. One can calculate the potential developed by such cells using the Nernst Equation. A concentration cell produces a voltage in the process of reaching equilibrium, which will occur when the concentration in both cells are equal.
Concentration cell methods of chemical analysis compare a solution of known concentration with an unknown, determining the concentration of the unknown via the Nernst Equation.
Electrochemistry:
Electrochemical cells and cell reactions;
Electrode potentials;
Nernst equation and its relation to ΔG;
Electrochemical series,
emf of galvanic cells;
Electrolysis
Faraday's laws of electrolysis;
Electrolytic conductance, specific, equivalent and molar conductance,
Kohlrausch's law;
Concentration cells.
---------------
electrochemical cell
or Voltaic or Galvanic Cells
In this cell, a chemical reaction produces electrical energy.
In this cell, the electrons being transferred from the reducing agent to the oxidizing agent travel through a wire and thus provide an elctric current.
a electrochemical cell is represented as
Ө Zn|ZnSO-4║CuSO-4|Cu In this symbol additionally On zinc side as it is a cathode a - sign is placed in O (as shown) and on Cu side as it is anode a + sign is placed in O.
cell reactions;
Reaction at the electrodes are called half cell reactions as both the elctrodes are kept seperate from physical contact and ion movement only is permitted through salt bridge.
At zinc electrode Zn → Zn^2+ +2e¯ (oxidation)
At Cu electrode: Cu^2+ +2e¯ → Cu (reduction)
Electrode potentials
When an electrode in put in solution of ions, a charge is developed between the solution and the electrode. This charge is termed a electrode potential. The electrode potential cannot be measured individually and it is measured in reference to a standard hydrogen electrode.
Standard Hydrogen Electrode
An electrode in which pure dry hydrogen gas is bubbled at 1 atm and 298K about a platinized platinum plate through a solution containing H^+ ions ( for example - HCl solution)
The emf produced is taken as zero volts. All other potential are expressed with SHE potential as zero.
Nernst Equation: The cell potential of a half cell (as well as that of a complete cell) depends upon the concentrations of involved ions, pressure of the gaseous species (if involved) and the temperature. The relation connecting them is given by the Nernst equation.
It is expressed as
E = E° - (RT/nF)ln Q°
Q° = Product of concentration (or pressure) of products each raised to the corresponding stochiometric number/Product of concentration (or pressure) of reactants each raised to the corresponding stochiometric number
n = number of electrons involved in the hall cell reaction
Electrochemical series is the series in which various elements are arranged in the order of their reduction or oxidation potentials.
Emf of galvanic cells
E(Cell) = E(R) - E(L)
Electrolysis
In electrolytic cell, electric energy is used to cause a chemical reaction to take place.
Faraday's laws of electrolysis:
---------------------------------------
Quantitative Relationships in Electrolytic Cells
Determining the amount of electrical energy necessary for accumulating a given amount material from the electrolytic cell.
First law: It states that the amount of any substance that is liberated at an electrode during electrolysis is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte.
W α Q (w = weight of substance deposited and Q is charge = ampere * time)
Second law: It states tht when the same quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytes amount of different substances liberated or deposited at the different electrodes are directly proportional to the chemical equivalents9i.e., equivalent weight) of substances.
One faraday (F) is the amount of electrical energy required for flow of 1 mole of electrons.
To three significant digits, 1 faraday equals 96,500 coulombs(coul).
Current flow is measured in amperes (A)which is coulombs/seconds or coul/s,
Electrolytic conductance
The flow of electric current through an electrolytic solution is known as electrolytic conduction.
Electrolytic conduction also follows Ohm's law.
The equivalent conductivity of an electrolyte may be defined as the conductance of a volume of solution containing one equivalent mass of a dissolved substance when placed between two parallel electrodes which are at a unit distance apart, and large enough to contain between them the whole solution.
The molar conductivity of a solution gives the conducting power of ions produced by one molar mass of an electrolyte at any particular concentration.
Kohlrausch's Law on the independence of migrating ions: The molar conductivity of an electrolyte equals the sum of the molar conductivities of the cations and the anions; n = number of anions or cations.
Λ = v+Λ+ + vˉΛˉ
Concentration cells.
Concentration Cells are electrochemical cells that have two equivalent half-cells of the same material differing only in concentrations. One can calculate the potential developed by such cells using the Nernst Equation. A concentration cell produces a voltage in the process of reaching equilibrium, which will occur when the concentration in both cells are equal.
Concentration cell methods of chemical analysis compare a solution of known concentration with an unknown, determining the concentration of the unknown via the Nernst Equation.
Friday, January 18, 2008
IIT JEE Ch 9. SOLUTIONS - Core Points for Revision
Jee Syllabus
Solutions:
Raoult's law;
Molecular weight determination from lowering of vapor pressure,
Molecular weight determination from elevation of boiling point
Molecular weight determination from depression of freezing point.
-----------------
Raolt's Law
In the case of a solution of two liquids, A and B, the total vapor pressure Ptot(P total) above the solution is equal to the sum of the vapor pressures of the two components, PA and PB and
PA = PA° * Am
PB = PB° * Bm
Where
PA° = vapour pressure created by 1 mol of liquid A
Am = mole fraction of liquid A in the solution
PB° = vapour pressure created by 1 mol of liquid A
Bm = mole fraction of liquid A in the solution
The pressure exerted by the vapours above the liquid surface in equilibrium with the liquid at a given temperature is called vapour pressure.
If a small amount of non-volatile solute is added to the the solvent, the vapour pressure of the solution becomes less than that of the pure solvent.
Some properties of the solution depend only on the number of solute particles but on the nature of the solute. These are called colligative properties or democratic properties.
The four important ones are:
i) Relative lowering in vapour pressure
ii) elevation in boiling point
iii) depression in freezing point
iv) osmotic pressure
Molecular weight determination from lowering of vapor pressure
Molar mass of a solute can be found from the property of lowering of vapor pressure of a solution.
Mb = (Wb*Ma)/[Wa*(Pa°-Pa)/Pa°]
Wb = weight of solute particles, Wa= weight of solvent
(Pa°-Pa)/Pa° = decrease in vapour pressure of solution
Ma = Molar mass of solvent
Molecular weight determination from elevation of boiling point
Mb = [Kb*Wb*1000]/[ΔTb*Wa]
ΔTb = increase in boiling point of the solution after adding the solute
Kb = molal elevation constant or ebulloscopic constant
= the elevation in boiling point for 1 molal solution, i.e., a solution containing 1 gram mole of solute dissolved in 1000 g of the solvent.
Molecular weight determination from depression of freezing point.
when a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the freezing point of the solution is always lower than that of the pure solvent.
The depression in freezing temperature is proportional to the molal concentration of the solution.
ΔTf α m Or ΔTf = Kf*m
Kf is the molal depression constant. also called molal cryoscopic constant. It is defined as the depression in freezing point for 1 molal solution i.e., a solution containing 1 gram mole of solute dissolved in 1000 g of solvent.
Mb = [Kf*Wb*1000]/[ΔTf * Wa]
--------------
For more detailed study guide on the topic
http://iit-jee-chemistry.blogspot.com/2007/10/study-guide-ch-9-solutions.html
Solutions:
Raoult's law;
Molecular weight determination from lowering of vapor pressure,
Molecular weight determination from elevation of boiling point
Molecular weight determination from depression of freezing point.
-----------------
Raolt's Law
In the case of a solution of two liquids, A and B, the total vapor pressure Ptot(P total) above the solution is equal to the sum of the vapor pressures of the two components, PA and PB and
PA = PA° * Am
PB = PB° * Bm
Where
PA° = vapour pressure created by 1 mol of liquid A
Am = mole fraction of liquid A in the solution
PB° = vapour pressure created by 1 mol of liquid A
Bm = mole fraction of liquid A in the solution
The pressure exerted by the vapours above the liquid surface in equilibrium with the liquid at a given temperature is called vapour pressure.
If a small amount of non-volatile solute is added to the the solvent, the vapour pressure of the solution becomes less than that of the pure solvent.
Some properties of the solution depend only on the number of solute particles but on the nature of the solute. These are called colligative properties or democratic properties.
The four important ones are:
i) Relative lowering in vapour pressure
ii) elevation in boiling point
iii) depression in freezing point
iv) osmotic pressure
Molecular weight determination from lowering of vapor pressure
Molar mass of a solute can be found from the property of lowering of vapor pressure of a solution.
Mb = (Wb*Ma)/[Wa*(Pa°-Pa)/Pa°]
Wb = weight of solute particles, Wa= weight of solvent
(Pa°-Pa)/Pa° = decrease in vapour pressure of solution
Ma = Molar mass of solvent
Molecular weight determination from elevation of boiling point
Mb = [Kb*Wb*1000]/[ΔTb*Wa]
ΔTb = increase in boiling point of the solution after adding the solute
Kb = molal elevation constant or ebulloscopic constant
= the elevation in boiling point for 1 molal solution, i.e., a solution containing 1 gram mole of solute dissolved in 1000 g of the solvent.
Molecular weight determination from depression of freezing point.
when a non-volatile solute is added to a solvent, the freezing point of the solution is always lower than that of the pure solvent.
The depression in freezing temperature is proportional to the molal concentration of the solution.
ΔTf α m Or ΔTf = Kf*m
Kf is the molal depression constant. also called molal cryoscopic constant. It is defined as the depression in freezing point for 1 molal solution i.e., a solution containing 1 gram mole of solute dissolved in 1000 g of solvent.
Mb = [Kf*Wb*1000]/[ΔTf * Wa]
--------------
For more detailed study guide on the topic
http://iit-jee-chemistry.blogspot.com/2007/10/study-guide-ch-9-solutions.html
IIT JEE Ch.10. CHEMICAL KINETICS Core Points for Revision
Jee Syllabus
Chemical kinetics:
Rates of chemical reactions;
Order of reactions;
Rate constant;
First order reactions;
Temperature dependence of rate constant (Arrhenius equation).
--------------------------
The topic "Chemical kinetics" consists of reaction rate and reaction mechanism.
Reaction rate is the speed with which a reaction takes place. This shows the rate or speed at which the reactants are consumed and products are formed.
Reaction mechanism is the path by which a reaction takes place.
Rate of reaction
The rate of reaction is a quantity that tells how the concentration of reactants or product changes with time.
So this can be expressed as Δ concentration/Δ time. That is change in concenation divided by time taken for the change.
Molar concentration i.e., moles per liter (M), is used in these equations.
The brackets, [ ] are always used to to indicate molar concentrations.
Rate law
The rate for a reaction is a mathematical expression that relates the rate of reaction to the concentrations of the reactants.
For the reaction aA + bB → products
The rate law is expressed as, rate of reaction is proportional to [A]^x[B]^y.
x and y are determined experimentally. These values can be whole or fractional numbers or zero.
Law of Mass Action
In 1867, Cato Guldberg, and Peter Waage, proposed this law. According to this law, for the rate determining step in a reaction, the rate of reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants, each raised to the power of its coefficient in the balanced equation.
For the reaction aA + bB → cC (when it is a rate determining step)
Rate of reaction is proportional to [A]^a[B]^b
The above proportionality can be written as an equation, by putting in a proportionality constant k.
Rate = k *[A]^a[B]^b
K is called the specific rate constant
Order of Reaction
From the rate law for a reaction order of reaction can be determined.
For a particular species or reactant, the order is equal to the exponent for that species in the rate law.
For example for Rate = k *[A][B]^2
for B the order of reaction is 2. For A it is 1.
The overall order of reaction is equal to the sum of all the individual orders of reactants.
Temperature
As temperature increases, the average kinetic energy increases. So there are more molecules with activation energy and hence reaction rate increases.
As a general approximation, the rate roughly doubles for each 10°C rise in temperature.
Chemical kinetics:
Rates of chemical reactions;
Order of reactions;
Rate constant;
First order reactions;
Temperature dependence of rate constant (Arrhenius equation).
--------------------------
The topic "Chemical kinetics" consists of reaction rate and reaction mechanism.
Reaction rate is the speed with which a reaction takes place. This shows the rate or speed at which the reactants are consumed and products are formed.
Reaction mechanism is the path by which a reaction takes place.
Rate of reaction
The rate of reaction is a quantity that tells how the concentration of reactants or product changes with time.
So this can be expressed as Δ concentration/Δ time. That is change in concenation divided by time taken for the change.
Molar concentration i.e., moles per liter (M), is used in these equations.
The brackets, [ ] are always used to to indicate molar concentrations.
Rate law
The rate for a reaction is a mathematical expression that relates the rate of reaction to the concentrations of the reactants.
For the reaction aA + bB → products
The rate law is expressed as, rate of reaction is proportional to [A]^x[B]^y.
x and y are determined experimentally. These values can be whole or fractional numbers or zero.
Law of Mass Action
In 1867, Cato Guldberg, and Peter Waage, proposed this law. According to this law, for the rate determining step in a reaction, the rate of reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants, each raised to the power of its coefficient in the balanced equation.
For the reaction aA + bB → cC (when it is a rate determining step)
Rate of reaction is proportional to [A]^a[B]^b
The above proportionality can be written as an equation, by putting in a proportionality constant k.
Rate = k *[A]^a[B]^b
K is called the specific rate constant
Order of Reaction
From the rate law for a reaction order of reaction can be determined.
For a particular species or reactant, the order is equal to the exponent for that species in the rate law.
For example for Rate = k *[A][B]^2
for B the order of reaction is 2. For A it is 1.
The overall order of reaction is equal to the sum of all the individual orders of reactants.
Temperature
As temperature increases, the average kinetic energy increases. So there are more molecules with activation energy and hence reaction rate increases.
As a general approximation, the rate roughly doubles for each 10°C rise in temperature.
IIT JEE Ch. 11. SURFACE CHEMISTRY Core Revision Points
JEE syllabus
Surface chemistry:
Elementary concepts of adsorption (excluding adsorption isotherms);
Colloids: types, methods of preparation and general properties;
Elementary ideas of emulsions, surfactants and micelles (only definitions and examples).
--------------
The term adsorption implies the presence of excess concentration of any particular component in one of the three phases of matter (known as adsorbate) at the surface of liquid or solid phase (known as adsorbent) as compared to that present in the bulk of the material.
On the basis of the forces of attraction between adsorbent and adsorbate, two types of adsorption, namely, physisorption (i.e. physical adsorption) and chemisorption, may be identified.
Colloids or sols are the substances whose sizes lie in between the solutes present in a true solution (e.g., salt, sugar) and the solutes present in suspension (e.g., sand).
The diameters of colloidal particles may range from 1 to 100 nm. The particles in colloidal state do not settle down on standing, are not visible and they can pass through a filter paper. However, they do not pass through a perchment paper or animal membrane.
Emulsion is a liquid dispersed in a liquid.
Any substance which can decrease the surface tension of water to a large extent is known as surfactant. Examples of soap and detergents. Such substances have larger concentrations at the surface of water as compared to the bulk of the solution.
Surfactants in solution are often association colloids, that is, they tend to form aggregates of colloidal dimensions, which exist in equilibrium with the molecules or ions from which they are formed. Such aggregates are termed micelles.
Surface chemistry:
Elementary concepts of adsorption (excluding adsorption isotherms);
Colloids: types, methods of preparation and general properties;
Elementary ideas of emulsions, surfactants and micelles (only definitions and examples).
--------------
The term adsorption implies the presence of excess concentration of any particular component in one of the three phases of matter (known as adsorbate) at the surface of liquid or solid phase (known as adsorbent) as compared to that present in the bulk of the material.
On the basis of the forces of attraction between adsorbent and adsorbate, two types of adsorption, namely, physisorption (i.e. physical adsorption) and chemisorption, may be identified.
Colloids or sols are the substances whose sizes lie in between the solutes present in a true solution (e.g., salt, sugar) and the solutes present in suspension (e.g., sand).
The diameters of colloidal particles may range from 1 to 100 nm. The particles in colloidal state do not settle down on standing, are not visible and they can pass through a filter paper. However, they do not pass through a perchment paper or animal membrane.
Emulsion is a liquid dispersed in a liquid.
Any substance which can decrease the surface tension of water to a large extent is known as surfactant. Examples of soap and detergents. Such substances have larger concentrations at the surface of water as compared to the bulk of the solution.
Surfactants in solution are often association colloids, that is, they tend to form aggregates of colloidal dimensions, which exist in equilibrium with the molecules or ions from which they are formed. Such aggregates are termed micelles.
IIt JEE Ch.12. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY - Core Points for Revision
JEE Syllabus
Nuclear chemistry:
Radioactivity:
isotopes and isobars;
Properties of a, b and g rays;
Kinetics of radioactive decay (decay series excluded),
carbon dating;
Stability of nuclei with respect to proton-neutron ratio;
Brief discussion on fission and fusion reactions.
--------------
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission ofactive radiations from certain substances is called radioactivity and the substances which emit such radiations are called radioactive substances.
Isotopes and Isobars
Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes.
Ex:(235, 92)U (238, 92)U
The atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers but same mass numbers are called isobars.
Ex (40,18)Ar ,(40,19)K , (40,20)Ca
An α particle contains two protons and two neutrons (and is similar to a He nucleus: ).
Beta Radiation (β) is the transmutation of a neutron into a proton and a electron (followed by the emission of the electron from the atom's nucleus:).
Gamma Radiation (γ) involves the emission of electromagnetic energy (similar to light energy) from an atom's nucleus.
Neutron-proton ratio
In the stability zone, for nuclei having atomic number up to 20, the neutron-proton ratio (n/p ratio) is close to unity.
for nuclei having atomic number more than 20, the n/p ratio for stability exceeds unity and goes up to 1.5 for heavier nuclei.
Radioactive decay proceeds according to a principal called the half-life. The half-life (T½) is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the radioactive material to decay.
During the fission of U235, three neutrons are released in addition to the two daughter atoms. If these released neutrons collide with nearby U235 nuclei, they can stimulate the fission of these atoms and start a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.As uranium atoms continue to split, a significant amount of energy is released from the reaction. The heat released during this reaction is harvested and used to generate electrical energy.
Nuclear fusion: reactions in which two or more elements "fuse" together to form one larger element, releasing energy in the process. A good example is the fusion of two "heavy" isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium: H2 and tritium: H3) into the element helium.
Carbon dating: The technique is based on the fact that all living matters contain a definite amount of radioactive isotope carbon 14 and after death decay of carbon 14 takes place. The amount of Carbon 14 remaining in the dead matter is determined from this the age of the body is calculated.
Nuclear chemistry:
Radioactivity:
isotopes and isobars;
Properties of a, b and g rays;
Kinetics of radioactive decay (decay series excluded),
carbon dating;
Stability of nuclei with respect to proton-neutron ratio;
Brief discussion on fission and fusion reactions.
--------------
The phenomenon of spontaneous emission ofactive radiations from certain substances is called radioactivity and the substances which emit such radiations are called radioactive substances.
Isotopes and Isobars
Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass numbers are called isotopes.
Ex:(235, 92)U (238, 92)U
The atoms of different elements having different atomic numbers but same mass numbers are called isobars.
Ex (40,18)Ar ,(40,19)K , (40,20)Ca
An α particle contains two protons and two neutrons (and is similar to a He nucleus: ).
Beta Radiation (β) is the transmutation of a neutron into a proton and a electron (followed by the emission of the electron from the atom's nucleus:).
Gamma Radiation (γ) involves the emission of electromagnetic energy (similar to light energy) from an atom's nucleus.
Neutron-proton ratio
In the stability zone, for nuclei having atomic number up to 20, the neutron-proton ratio (n/p ratio) is close to unity.
for nuclei having atomic number more than 20, the n/p ratio for stability exceeds unity and goes up to 1.5 for heavier nuclei.
Radioactive decay proceeds according to a principal called the half-life. The half-life (T½) is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the radioactive material to decay.
During the fission of U235, three neutrons are released in addition to the two daughter atoms. If these released neutrons collide with nearby U235 nuclei, they can stimulate the fission of these atoms and start a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.As uranium atoms continue to split, a significant amount of energy is released from the reaction. The heat released during this reaction is harvested and used to generate electrical energy.
Nuclear fusion: reactions in which two or more elements "fuse" together to form one larger element, releasing energy in the process. A good example is the fusion of two "heavy" isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium: H2 and tritium: H3) into the element helium.
Carbon dating: The technique is based on the fact that all living matters contain a definite amount of radioactive isotope carbon 14 and after death decay of carbon 14 takes place. The amount of Carbon 14 remaining in the dead matter is determined from this the age of the body is calculated.
Thursday, January 17, 2008
IIT JEE Inorganic Chemistry Ch.13. NON-METALS Core Points for Revision
The Inorganic Chemistry of IIT JEE syllabus is covered in six chapters the first one being nonmetals. The rest of the chapters are compounds of metals, compounds of nonmetals, transient elements, ores/minerals and extractive metallury and qualitative analysis.
Seperate posts are there for each chapter.
---------------------------------
IIT JEE Syllabus NON-METALS
Isolation/preparation and properties of the following non-metals:
Boron,
silicon,
nitrogen,
phosphorus,
oxygen,
sulphur and
halogens;
Properties of allotropes of
carbon (only diamond and graphite),
phosphorus and
sulphur.
Boron (B)
Z = 5, 1s²2s²2px¹
Boron belongs to 13th group.
Method of obtaining Boron
By the reduction of boric oxide by an electropositive metal like magnesium.
silicon (Si) -
Atomic Number is 14. 1s²2s²2p^63s²3p²
Method of obtaining Silicon: Heating finely divided silica with magnesium powder.
Sulphur (S)
Partial combustion of Hydrogen sulphide produce sulphur.
Halogens
Flourine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I).
Chlorine is yellow green gas
Bromine is reddish brown liquid
Iodine is steel grey solid
Allotrope
• Allotropes are elements that can exist in two or more different physical forms
• Diamond, graphite and buckminster fullerine are allotropes of carbon.
• The allotropes of carbon are all the element carbon. The type of carbon is determined from the bonding that occurs.
The carbon atoms in graphite are arranged in flat sheets that slide easily over each other, while the atoms in diamond are bonded in a complex, honeycombed structure that makes the solid much harder.
Atmospheric oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) are allotropes of oxygen.
For example, phosphorous occurs in three forms--white, red, and black. White phosphorous is poisonous and very reactive, red phosphorous is not poisonous and it is only moderately reactive, and black phosphorous is nearly inert.
Rhombic and monoclinic sulfur are allotropes.
Seperate posts are there for each chapter.
---------------------------------
IIT JEE Syllabus NON-METALS
Isolation/preparation and properties of the following non-metals:
Boron,
silicon,
nitrogen,
phosphorus,
oxygen,
sulphur and
halogens;
Properties of allotropes of
carbon (only diamond and graphite),
phosphorus and
sulphur.
Boron (B)
Z = 5, 1s²2s²2px¹
Boron belongs to 13th group.
Method of obtaining Boron
By the reduction of boric oxide by an electropositive metal like magnesium.
silicon (Si) -
Atomic Number is 14. 1s²2s²2p^63s²3p²
Method of obtaining Silicon: Heating finely divided silica with magnesium powder.
Sulphur (S)
Partial combustion of Hydrogen sulphide produce sulphur.
Halogens
Flourine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br), Iodine (I).
Chlorine is yellow green gas
Bromine is reddish brown liquid
Iodine is steel grey solid
Allotrope
• Allotropes are elements that can exist in two or more different physical forms
• Diamond, graphite and buckminster fullerine are allotropes of carbon.
• The allotropes of carbon are all the element carbon. The type of carbon is determined from the bonding that occurs.
The carbon atoms in graphite are arranged in flat sheets that slide easily over each other, while the atoms in diamond are bonded in a complex, honeycombed structure that makes the solid much harder.
Atmospheric oxygen (O2) and ozone (O3) are allotropes of oxygen.
For example, phosphorous occurs in three forms--white, red, and black. White phosphorous is poisonous and very reactive, red phosphorous is not poisonous and it is only moderately reactive, and black phosphorous is nearly inert.
Rhombic and monoclinic sulfur are allotropes.
IIT JEE Ch.14. COMPOUNDS OF METALS - Core Points for Revision
JEE Syllabus
Preparation and properties of the following compounds:
Oxides,
peroxides,
hydroxides,
carbonates,
bicarbonates,
chlorides and
sulphates of
sodium,
potassium,
magnesium and
calcium;
Aluminium: alumina, aluminium chloride and alums;
---------------
Sodium Oxide
Sodium oxide has formula Na2O.
It is also called sodium(I) oxide, disodium oxide, sodium monoxide, and soda.
Sodium peroxide
A nearly white compound (Na 2 O 2 ), having vigorous oxidizing properties, and used in bleaching mechanical paper pulps and as a final stage in the bleaching of chemical paper pulps in some multi-stage bleaching sequences.
Sodium hydroxide
sodium hydroxide chemical compound, NaOH, is a white crystalline substance that readily absorbs carbon dioxide and moisture from the air.
Sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate exists as anhydrous (Na2CO3) and also as hydrated salt. The decahydrated salt (Na2CO3.10H2O) is known as washing soda while the anhydrous salt is called soda ash.
Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO-3
Sodium Bicarbonate, commonly called baking soda, is a white odourless, crystalline solid, completely soluble in water but slightly soluble in ethanol. It is the mildest of all sodium alkalis.
Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride (NaCl) or common salt is an ionic crystal consisting of equal numbers of sodium and chlorine atoms and is an essential component in the human diet, being found in blood sweat and tears.
Sodium sulphate
FORMULA Na2SO4
Sodium sulfate is a white, orthorhombic crystalline solid at room temperatures ( a monoclinic structure at > 100 C, a hexagonal structure at > 250C).
Potassium Oxide
Formula as commonly written: K2O
Physical properties
• Colour: yellowish white to grey
• Appearance: crystalline solid
Potassium peroxide
K2O2
Potassium hydroxide
Potassium Hydroxide, commonly called caustic potash with formula KOH, is a caustic compound of strong alkaline chemical dissolving readily in water, giving off much heat and forming a caustic solution.
Potassium carbonate
Potassium carbonate is a white salt, soluble in water (insoluble in alcohol), which forms a strongly alkaline solution.
Potassium bicarbonate
Potassium bicarbonate (also known as potassium hydrogen carbonate or potassium acid carbonate), is a colorless, odorless, slightly basic, salty substance.
Potassium chloride - KCl
Potassium chloride is also commonly known as "Muriate of Potash".
Potassium sulphate
Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) (also known as potash of sulfur) is a non-flammable white crystalline salt which is soluble in water. The chemical is commonly used in fertilizers, providing both potassium and sulfur.
Magnesium Oxide
Magnesium oxide
Roasting either magnesium carbonate or magnesium hydroxide produces the oxygen compound magnesium oxide, commonly called magnesia, MgO, a white solid used in the manufacture of high-temperature refractory bricks, electrical and thermal insulators, cements, fertilizer, rubber, and plastics. It is used medically as a laxative.
Magnesium peroxide
Magnesium peroxide is a fine powder peroxide with a white to white-off color.
Magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, is a white powder produced in large quantities from seawater by the addition of milk of lime (calcium hydroxide).
Magnesium carbonate
Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3, occurs in nature as the mineral magnesite and is an important source of elemental magnesium. It can be produced artificially by the action of carbon dioxide on a variety of magnesium compounds.
Magnesium bicarbonate
Mg(HCO3)2
Magnesium bicarbonate + Lime → Calcium carbonate + Magnesium carbonate + Water
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O
Magnesium chloride
The action of hydrochloric acid on magnesium hydroxide produces magnesium chloride, MgCl2, a colourless, deliquescent (water-absorbing) substance employed in magnesium metal production, in the manufacture of a cement for heavy-duty flooring, and as an additive in textile manufacture.
Magnesium sulphate
Magnesium sulfate, MgSO-4, is a colourless, crystalline substance formed by the reaction of magnesium hydroxide with sulfur dioxide and air.
Calcium Oxide CaO
Calcium oxide is commonly known as quicklime, and is a material of primary importance in the building industry.
Calcium peroxide
Calcium peroxide (CaO2) is a solid peroxide with a white or yellowish color.
Calcium hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)-2)
Calcium hydroxide in solid powdered form is called slaked lime. A suspension of slaked lime in water is called milk of lime.
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Calcium carbonate occurs abundantly as dolomite, MgCO3.CaCO3, a mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates.
Calcium bicarbonate
Calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2), also called calcium hydrogen carbonate, does not refer to a known solid compound; it “exists” only in a solution containing the ions calcium Ca^2+, dissolved carbon dioxide CO2, bicarbonate HCO3–, and carbonate CO3^2–.
Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is an ionic compound of calcium and chlorine.
It can be produced directly from limestone, but large amounts are also produced as a by-product of the Solvay process.
Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
Calcium sulphate can be obtained by heating gypsum above 200°C.
Compounds of Aluminium: alumina, aluminium chloride and alums;
Aluminium oxide(Al2O3), also known as alumina, is the main component of bauxite, the principal ore of aluminium.
Aluminium chloride (AlCl3) is manufactured on a large scale by the exothermic reaction of aluminium metal with chlorine or hydrogen chloride.
Alum is a salt that in chemistry is a combination of an alkali metal, such as sodium, potassium, or ammonium and a trivalent metal, such as aluminum, iron, or chromium.
The most common form, potassium aluminum sulfate, or potash alum, is one form that has been used in food processing.
Preparation and properties of the following compounds:
Oxides,
peroxides,
hydroxides,
carbonates,
bicarbonates,
chlorides and
sulphates of
sodium,
potassium,
magnesium and
calcium;
Aluminium: alumina, aluminium chloride and alums;
---------------
Sodium Oxide
Sodium oxide has formula Na2O.
It is also called sodium(I) oxide, disodium oxide, sodium monoxide, and soda.
Sodium peroxide
A nearly white compound (Na 2 O 2 ), having vigorous oxidizing properties, and used in bleaching mechanical paper pulps and as a final stage in the bleaching of chemical paper pulps in some multi-stage bleaching sequences.
Sodium hydroxide
sodium hydroxide chemical compound, NaOH, is a white crystalline substance that readily absorbs carbon dioxide and moisture from the air.
Sodium carbonate
Sodium carbonate exists as anhydrous (Na2CO3) and also as hydrated salt. The decahydrated salt (Na2CO3.10H2O) is known as washing soda while the anhydrous salt is called soda ash.
Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO-3
Sodium Bicarbonate, commonly called baking soda, is a white odourless, crystalline solid, completely soluble in water but slightly soluble in ethanol. It is the mildest of all sodium alkalis.
Sodium chloride
Sodium chloride (NaCl) or common salt is an ionic crystal consisting of equal numbers of sodium and chlorine atoms and is an essential component in the human diet, being found in blood sweat and tears.
Sodium sulphate
FORMULA Na2SO4
Sodium sulfate is a white, orthorhombic crystalline solid at room temperatures ( a monoclinic structure at > 100 C, a hexagonal structure at > 250C).
Potassium Oxide
Formula as commonly written: K2O
Physical properties
• Colour: yellowish white to grey
• Appearance: crystalline solid
Potassium peroxide
K2O2
Potassium hydroxide
Potassium Hydroxide, commonly called caustic potash with formula KOH, is a caustic compound of strong alkaline chemical dissolving readily in water, giving off much heat and forming a caustic solution.
Potassium carbonate
Potassium carbonate is a white salt, soluble in water (insoluble in alcohol), which forms a strongly alkaline solution.
Potassium bicarbonate
Potassium bicarbonate (also known as potassium hydrogen carbonate or potassium acid carbonate), is a colorless, odorless, slightly basic, salty substance.
Potassium chloride - KCl
Potassium chloride is also commonly known as "Muriate of Potash".
Potassium sulphate
Potassium sulfate (K2SO4) (also known as potash of sulfur) is a non-flammable white crystalline salt which is soluble in water. The chemical is commonly used in fertilizers, providing both potassium and sulfur.
Magnesium Oxide
Magnesium oxide
Roasting either magnesium carbonate or magnesium hydroxide produces the oxygen compound magnesium oxide, commonly called magnesia, MgO, a white solid used in the manufacture of high-temperature refractory bricks, electrical and thermal insulators, cements, fertilizer, rubber, and plastics. It is used medically as a laxative.
Magnesium peroxide
Magnesium peroxide is a fine powder peroxide with a white to white-off color.
Magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, is a white powder produced in large quantities from seawater by the addition of milk of lime (calcium hydroxide).
Magnesium carbonate
Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3, occurs in nature as the mineral magnesite and is an important source of elemental magnesium. It can be produced artificially by the action of carbon dioxide on a variety of magnesium compounds.
Magnesium bicarbonate
Mg(HCO3)2
Magnesium bicarbonate + Lime → Calcium carbonate + Magnesium carbonate + Water
Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + MgCO3 + 2H2O
Magnesium chloride
The action of hydrochloric acid on magnesium hydroxide produces magnesium chloride, MgCl2, a colourless, deliquescent (water-absorbing) substance employed in magnesium metal production, in the manufacture of a cement for heavy-duty flooring, and as an additive in textile manufacture.
Magnesium sulphate
Magnesium sulfate, MgSO-4, is a colourless, crystalline substance formed by the reaction of magnesium hydroxide with sulfur dioxide and air.
Calcium Oxide CaO
Calcium oxide is commonly known as quicklime, and is a material of primary importance in the building industry.
Calcium peroxide
Calcium peroxide (CaO2) is a solid peroxide with a white or yellowish color.
Calcium hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)-2)
Calcium hydroxide in solid powdered form is called slaked lime. A suspension of slaked lime in water is called milk of lime.
Calcium carbonate CaCO3
Calcium carbonate occurs abundantly as dolomite, MgCO3.CaCO3, a mixture of calcium and magnesium carbonates.
Calcium bicarbonate
Calcium bicarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2), also called calcium hydrogen carbonate, does not refer to a known solid compound; it “exists” only in a solution containing the ions calcium Ca^2+, dissolved carbon dioxide CO2, bicarbonate HCO3–, and carbonate CO3^2–.
Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride (CaCl2) is an ionic compound of calcium and chlorine.
It can be produced directly from limestone, but large amounts are also produced as a by-product of the Solvay process.
Calcium sulphate (CaSO4)
Calcium sulphate can be obtained by heating gypsum above 200°C.
Compounds of Aluminium: alumina, aluminium chloride and alums;
Aluminium oxide(Al2O3), also known as alumina, is the main component of bauxite, the principal ore of aluminium.
Aluminium chloride (AlCl3) is manufactured on a large scale by the exothermic reaction of aluminium metal with chlorine or hydrogen chloride.
Alum is a salt that in chemistry is a combination of an alkali metal, such as sodium, potassium, or ammonium and a trivalent metal, such as aluminum, iron, or chromium.
The most common form, potassium aluminum sulfate, or potash alum, is one form that has been used in food processing.
IIT JEE Ch.15. COMPOUNDS OF NONMETALS - Core Points for Revision
Syllabus
Preparation and properties of the following compounds:
Carbon: oxides and oxyacid (carbonic acid);
Silicon: silicones, silicates and silicon carbide;
Nitrogen: oxides, oxyacids and ammonia;
Phosphorus: oxides, oxyacids (phosphorus acid, phosphoric acid) and phosphine;
Oxygen: ozone and hydrogen peroxide;
Sulphur: hydrogen sulphide, oxides, sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid and sodium thiosulphate;
Halogens: hydrohalic acids, oxides and oxyacids of chlorine, bleaching powder; Xenon fluorides;
Fertilizers: commercially available (common) NPK type.
------------------------
Carbon: oxides and oxyacid (carbonic acid);
Carbon Monoxide CO
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Carbonic acid
Silicon: silicones, silicates and silicon carbide;
silicon dioxide SiO2
Nitrogen: oxides, oxyacids and ammonia;
Ammonia NH3
Phosphorus: oxides, oxyacids (phosphorus acid, phosphoric acid) and phosphine;
Oxygen: ozone and hydrogen peroxide;
Ozone O3
Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2
Sulphur: hydrogen sulphide, oxides, sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid and sodium thiosulphate;
H2S
SO2
H2SO4
Halogens: hydrohalic acids, oxides and oxyacids of chlorine, bleaching powder; Xenon fluorides;
HCl
HI
XeF2, XeF4
Fertilizers: commercially available (common) NPK type.
This chapter's revision points need to maintained topic wise only.
Preparation and properties of the following compounds:
Carbon: oxides and oxyacid (carbonic acid);
Silicon: silicones, silicates and silicon carbide;
Nitrogen: oxides, oxyacids and ammonia;
Phosphorus: oxides, oxyacids (phosphorus acid, phosphoric acid) and phosphine;
Oxygen: ozone and hydrogen peroxide;
Sulphur: hydrogen sulphide, oxides, sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid and sodium thiosulphate;
Halogens: hydrohalic acids, oxides and oxyacids of chlorine, bleaching powder; Xenon fluorides;
Fertilizers: commercially available (common) NPK type.
------------------------
Carbon: oxides and oxyacid (carbonic acid);
Carbon Monoxide CO
Carbon Dioxide CO2
Carbonic acid
Silicon: silicones, silicates and silicon carbide;
silicon dioxide SiO2
Nitrogen: oxides, oxyacids and ammonia;
Ammonia NH3
Phosphorus: oxides, oxyacids (phosphorus acid, phosphoric acid) and phosphine;
Oxygen: ozone and hydrogen peroxide;
Ozone O3
Hydrogen Peroxide H2O2
Sulphur: hydrogen sulphide, oxides, sulphurous acid, sulphuric acid and sodium thiosulphate;
H2S
SO2
H2SO4
Halogens: hydrohalic acids, oxides and oxyacids of chlorine, bleaching powder; Xenon fluorides;
HCl
HI
XeF2, XeF4
Fertilizers: commercially available (common) NPK type.
This chapter's revision points need to maintained topic wise only.
One More Site for Learning Chemistry
http://home.att.net/~cat6a/index.htm
The site has following pages and topics
Introduction to Chemistry
Part I - Structure of Atom
Part II - Chemical Symbols, Chemical Formulae, Valency
Part III - Chemical Reactions
Properties of Matter
Part I - Definitions of Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Part II - States of Matter
Acids, Bases and Salts
Part I - Ions and Radicals, Acids and Bases
Part II - pH of a solution, Neutralization and Salts
Formation of Compounds
Part I - Ionic Bonds
Part II - Covalent Bonds
Part III - Other Bonds
Chemistry of Carbon Bonds
Part I - How does Carbon form Tetravalent Bonds?
Part II - Why are there so many Carbon Compounds?
Allotropic Forms of Carbon
Part I - Structure of Diamond
Part II - Structure of Graphite, Structure of Fullerenes
Mass of an Atom
Atomic Weight, Average Weight, Gram Atomic Weight
Chemical Reactions
Part I - Types of Chemical Reactions
Part II - How to Balance a Reaction
Part III - Energy Changes in a Chemical Reaction
Part IV - Reaction Rates
Part V - Concepts of Mole and Calculations
Classification of Elements
Part I - Introduction, Dobereiner’s Triads
Part II - Newlands’ Law of Octaves
Part III - Lothar Mayer’s Atomic Volume Curves
Part IV - Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Part V - Modern Periodic Table
Part VI - Characteristics of Periods
Part VII - Characteristics of Groups, Advantages of the Modern Periodic Table
Electrolysis
Part I - Process and Mechanism of Electrolysis
Part II - Conductor versus Electrolyte, Electrolysis of Water
Part III - Definition of Standard Solutions, Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis
Part IV - Application of Electrolysis
Organic Chemistry
Part I - Classification of Aliphatic Compounds, Hydrocarbons (Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes)
Part II - Naming of Hydrocarbons
Part III - Isomers and their Characteristics
Part IV - Alkanes and their Properties, Methane - Laboratory Preparation, Properties and Uses
Part V - Alkenes, Ethene - Laboratory Preparation, Properties and Uses
Part VI - Alkynes, Ethyne - Laboratory Preparation, Properties and Uses
Part VII - Alcohols - Nomenclature and Properties
Part VIII - Methanol and Ethanol - Manufacture, Properties and Uses
Part IX - Organic Acids - Nomenclature, Manufacture, Properties and Uses
Part X - Esters - Manufacture, Properties and Uses
Man Made Organic Materials
Part I - Artificial Fibers, Rayon & Nylon - Preparation, Properties & Uses
Part II - Polyester & Carbon Fibers - Preparation, Properties & Uses
Part III - Plastics - Thermoplastics & Thermosetting Plastics
Part IV - Artificial Rubber, Neoprene & Thiokol - Preparation, Properties & Uses
Part V - Soaps, Detergents & Washing Powder
Fuels
Part I - Classification and Sources of Fuels, Bio Mass, Charcoal and its Production
Part II - Bio Gas and its Uses, Types of Bio Gas Plants
Part III - Coal and its Uses, Destructive Distillation of Coal
Part IV - Petroleum, Fractional Distillation of Petroleum
Part V - Petroleum Gas, Advantages and Disadvantages and Daily Use of LPG, Cracking
Part VI - Natural Gas - Its Advantages & Disadvantages and Uses, Synthetic
Petroleum and Synthetic Natural Gas
Part VII - Calorific Value of Fuels and its Measurement
Part VIII - Combustion and Ignition Temperature, Combustion Requirements, Flames
Part IX - An Ideal Fuel
Part X- Pollution Caused by Fuels
Part XI - Food as Fuel, Differences Between Respiration & Combustion and
Photosynthesis & Respiration, Why is Fire Hot?
Metals and Non-Metals
Part I - Electronic Configuration of Metals and Non-Metals
Part II - Physical Properties of Metals
Part III - Chemical Properties of Metals
Part IV - Reactivity Series of Metals
Part V - Physical Properties of Non-Metals
Part VI - Chemical Properties of Non-Metals
Part VII - Comparison Between Metals and Non-Metals
Part VIII - Metallurgy : Extraction of Ores and Refining of Ores, Various Steps in
Metallurgy
Part IX - Concentration of Ore
Part X - Conversion of Ore into Metal Oxide, Reduction of Metal Oxide
Part XI - Refining of Metals, High Purity Metals
Part XII - Study of Metals : Aluminium - Extraction, Physical & Chemical
Properties and Uses
Part XIII - Study of Metals : Iron - Extraction, Physical & Chemical Properties and Uses
Part XIV - Study of Metals : Copper - Extraction, Physical & Chemical Properties and Uses
Part XV - Uses of Metals
Part XVI - Compounds of Metals and Alloys, Alloys of Aluminium, Iron & Copper
Part XVII - Study of Non-Metals : Silicon - Extraction, Physical & Chemical Properties and Uses
Part XVIII - Study of Non-Metals : Phosphorus - Extraction, Physical & Chemical Properties and Uses
Part XIX - Study of Non-Metals : Sulphur - Extraction, Physical & Chemical Properties and Uses
The site has following pages and topics
Introduction to Chemistry
Part I - Structure of Atom
Part II - Chemical Symbols, Chemical Formulae, Valency
Part III - Chemical Reactions
Properties of Matter
Part I - Definitions of Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Part II - States of Matter
Acids, Bases and Salts
Part I - Ions and Radicals, Acids and Bases
Part II - pH of a solution, Neutralization and Salts
Formation of Compounds
Part I - Ionic Bonds
Part II - Covalent Bonds
Part III - Other Bonds
Chemistry of Carbon Bonds
Part I - How does Carbon form Tetravalent Bonds?
Part II - Why are there so many Carbon Compounds?
Allotropic Forms of Carbon
Part I - Structure of Diamond
Part II - Structure of Graphite, Structure of Fullerenes
Mass of an Atom
Atomic Weight, Average Weight, Gram Atomic Weight
Chemical Reactions
Part I - Types of Chemical Reactions
Part II - How to Balance a Reaction
Part III - Energy Changes in a Chemical Reaction
Part IV - Reaction Rates
Part V - Concepts of Mole and Calculations
Classification of Elements
Part I - Introduction, Dobereiner’s Triads
Part II - Newlands’ Law of Octaves
Part III - Lothar Mayer’s Atomic Volume Curves
Part IV - Mendeleev’s Periodic Table
Part V - Modern Periodic Table
Part VI - Characteristics of Periods
Part VII - Characteristics of Groups, Advantages of the Modern Periodic Table
Electrolysis
Part I - Process and Mechanism of Electrolysis
Part II - Conductor versus Electrolyte, Electrolysis of Water
Part III - Definition of Standard Solutions, Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis
Part IV - Application of Electrolysis
Organic Chemistry
Part I - Classification of Aliphatic Compounds, Hydrocarbons (Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes)
Part II - Naming of Hydrocarbons
Part III - Isomers and their Characteristics
Part IV - Alkanes and their Properties, Methane - Laboratory Preparation, Properties and Uses
Part V - Alkenes, Ethene - Laboratory Preparation, Properties and Uses
Part VI - Alkynes, Ethyne - Laboratory Preparation, Properties and Uses
Part VII - Alcohols - Nomenclature and Properties
Part VIII - Methanol and Ethanol - Manufacture, Properties and Uses
Part IX - Organic Acids - Nomenclature, Manufacture, Properties and Uses
Part X - Esters - Manufacture, Properties and Uses
Man Made Organic Materials
Part I - Artificial Fibers, Rayon & Nylon - Preparation, Properties & Uses
Part II - Polyester & Carbon Fibers - Preparation, Properties & Uses
Part III - Plastics - Thermoplastics & Thermosetting Plastics
Part IV - Artificial Rubber, Neoprene & Thiokol - Preparation, Properties & Uses
Part V - Soaps, Detergents & Washing Powder
Fuels
Part I - Classification and Sources of Fuels, Bio Mass, Charcoal and its Production
Part II - Bio Gas and its Uses, Types of Bio Gas Plants
Part III - Coal and its Uses, Destructive Distillation of Coal
Part IV - Petroleum, Fractional Distillation of Petroleum
Part V - Petroleum Gas, Advantages and Disadvantages and Daily Use of LPG, Cracking
Part VI - Natural Gas - Its Advantages & Disadvantages and Uses, Synthetic
Petroleum and Synthetic Natural Gas
Part VII - Calorific Value of Fuels and its Measurement
Part VIII - Combustion and Ignition Temperature, Combustion Requirements, Flames
Part IX - An Ideal Fuel
Part X- Pollution Caused by Fuels
Part XI - Food as Fuel, Differences Between Respiration & Combustion and
Photosynthesis & Respiration, Why is Fire Hot?
Metals and Non-Metals
Part I - Electronic Configuration of Metals and Non-Metals
Part II - Physical Properties of Metals
Part III - Chemical Properties of Metals
Part IV - Reactivity Series of Metals
Part V - Physical Properties of Non-Metals
Part VI - Chemical Properties of Non-Metals
Part VII - Comparison Between Metals and Non-Metals
Part VIII - Metallurgy : Extraction of Ores and Refining of Ores, Various Steps in
Metallurgy
Part IX - Concentration of Ore
Part X - Conversion of Ore into Metal Oxide, Reduction of Metal Oxide
Part XI - Refining of Metals, High Purity Metals
Part XII - Study of Metals : Aluminium - Extraction, Physical & Chemical
Properties and Uses
Part XIII - Study of Metals : Iron - Extraction, Physical & Chemical Properties and Uses
Part XIV - Study of Metals : Copper - Extraction, Physical & Chemical Properties and Uses
Part XV - Uses of Metals
Part XVI - Compounds of Metals and Alloys, Alloys of Aluminium, Iron & Copper
Part XVII - Study of Non-Metals : Silicon - Extraction, Physical & Chemical Properties and Uses
Part XVIII - Study of Non-Metals : Phosphorus - Extraction, Physical & Chemical Properties and Uses
Part XIX - Study of Non-Metals : Sulphur - Extraction, Physical & Chemical Properties and Uses
Ch.16.Transition Elements - core Points for Revision
Syllabus
Transition elements (3d series):
Definition, general characteristics, oxidation states and their stabilities, colour (excluding the details of electronic transitions) and calculation of spin-only magnetic moment;
Coordination compounds: nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds, cis-trans and ionisation isomerisms, hybridization and geometries of mononuclear coordination compounds (linear, tetrahedral, square planar and octahedral).
---------------
A transition element may be defined as an element which in its elementary form or in at least one of its oxidation states, possesses partially filled d orbitals in its penultimate shell.
Three series of elements are formed by filling the 3d, 4d, and 5d shells by electrons.
First series or 3d series: Scandium to Zinc
Second series or 4d series: Yitrium to cadmium
Third series or 5d series: Lanthanum to hafnium to mercury
In JEE syllabus only 3d series is there.
The ten elements from Scandium to Zinc form the first transition metal series. They closely resemble each other and are hard, dense, shiny metals with high melting and boiling points.
oxidation states
Common oxidation states are +2 and +3, with the +2 state more common towards the end. The higher oxidation states are shown in compounds with electronegative elements like O, Cl or F (e.g. Cr2O7^2- [+6], MnO4^- [+7]).
Variable oxidation state is found because of the small difference in energy between the 3d and 4s sub-shells. This allows varying numbers of electrons to be used in bonding. When forming ions transition metals lose electrons from the 4s sub-shell before the 3d.
Catalytic Action
The ability of transition metals to exist in various oxidation states makes them important industrial and biological catalysts.
Coordination compounds are a special class of compounds in which the centgral metal atom is surrounded by ions or molecules beyond their valency.
There are also referred to as coordination complexes or complexes.
Haemoglobin, Chlrophyll, and vitamin B-12 are coordinatio compounds of iron, magnesium and cobalt respectively.
The interesting thing of coordination compound is that these are formed from apparently saturated molecules capable of independent existence.
Transition elements (3d series):
Definition, general characteristics, oxidation states and their stabilities, colour (excluding the details of electronic transitions) and calculation of spin-only magnetic moment;
Coordination compounds: nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds, cis-trans and ionisation isomerisms, hybridization and geometries of mononuclear coordination compounds (linear, tetrahedral, square planar and octahedral).
---------------
A transition element may be defined as an element which in its elementary form or in at least one of its oxidation states, possesses partially filled d orbitals in its penultimate shell.
Three series of elements are formed by filling the 3d, 4d, and 5d shells by electrons.
First series or 3d series: Scandium to Zinc
Second series or 4d series: Yitrium to cadmium
Third series or 5d series: Lanthanum to hafnium to mercury
In JEE syllabus only 3d series is there.
The ten elements from Scandium to Zinc form the first transition metal series. They closely resemble each other and are hard, dense, shiny metals with high melting and boiling points.
oxidation states
Common oxidation states are +2 and +3, with the +2 state more common towards the end. The higher oxidation states are shown in compounds with electronegative elements like O, Cl or F (e.g. Cr2O7^2- [+6], MnO4^- [+7]).
Variable oxidation state is found because of the small difference in energy between the 3d and 4s sub-shells. This allows varying numbers of electrons to be used in bonding. When forming ions transition metals lose electrons from the 4s sub-shell before the 3d.
Catalytic Action
The ability of transition metals to exist in various oxidation states makes them important industrial and biological catalysts.
Coordination compounds are a special class of compounds in which the centgral metal atom is surrounded by ions or molecules beyond their valency.
There are also referred to as coordination complexes or complexes.
Haemoglobin, Chlrophyll, and vitamin B-12 are coordinatio compounds of iron, magnesium and cobalt respectively.
The interesting thing of coordination compound is that these are formed from apparently saturated molecules capable of independent existence.
Ch.17. Ores/Minerals and Extractive Metallury - Core Points for Revision
Syllabus
Ores and minerals: Commonly occurring ores and minerals of
iron,
copper,
tin,
lead,
magnesium,
aluminium,
zinc and
silver.
Extractive metallurgy: Chemical principles and reactions only (industrial details excluded);
Carbon reduction method (iron and tin);
Self reduction method (copper and lead);
Electrolytic reduction method (magnesium and aluminium);
Cyanide process (silver and gold).
Ores and minerals of iron
Magnetite
Haematite
Limonite
Iron Pyrites
Copper Pyrites
Haematite is the principal ore.
Ores and minerals of Tin
Tin stone
Ores and minerals of Copper
Copper pyrites
Malachanite
Cuprite or ruby copper
Azurite
Copper glance
Minerals of Lead
Galena
Cerussite
Anglesite
Wulfenite
Stolzite
Minerals of Magnesium
Magnesite
Carnallite
Kiesserite
Schonite
Dolomite
Epsomite
kainite
Minerals of Alumium
Corundum
Diaspore
Bauxite
Cryolite
Feldspar, Mica, Kaolinite
Alunite or Alumstone
Turquoise
Aluminates of Magensium, Iron and Manganese
Minerals of Silver
Argentite
Pyrargarite
Proustite
Horn Silver
Minerals of Zinc
(from X book by Viraf Dalal)
Zincite
Calamine
Zinc Blende
Minerals of Gold
Mainly native gold
Nagyagite
Calaverite
Sylvanite
Krennerite
Fe
The reduction of the ore
At the high temperature at the bottom of the furnace, carbon dioxide reacts with carbon to produce carbon monoxide.
It is the carbon monoxide which is the main reducing agent in the furnace.
Extraction of Tin
The ore is tin stone that contains 10% of the metal as SnO2.
SnO2 + 2C = Sn + 2CO
The moltenmetal is collected from the bottom of the blast furnace.
The metal may be purified elctrolytically
Copper
The concentrated ore is heated strongly with silicon dioxide (silica) and air or oxygen in a furnace or series of furnaces.
Electrolysis of magnesium
• Dolomite and seawater is precipitated
as insoluble magnesium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2 which is subsequently treated
with HCl to give MgCl2.
• MgCl2 is fed into electrolysis cell to
produce Mg metal at cathode and Cl2
at anode.
Conversion of the aluminium oxide into aluminium by electrolysis
The aluminium oxide is electrolysed in solution in molten cryolite, Na3AlF6. Cryolite is another aluminium ore, but is rare and expensive, and most is now made chemically.
Gold
It is now the most important and widely used process for extracting gold from ores.
The ore is first finely ground and concentrated by flotation.
To remove certain impurities, it may be roasted.
It is then mixed with a dilute solution of sodium cyanide (or potassium or calcium cyanide) while air is bubbled through it.
Soluble aurocyanide complex ion, Au(CN)-2^-1 is formed .
Silver, usually present as an impurity, also forms a similar soluble ion.
Ores and minerals: Commonly occurring ores and minerals of
iron,
copper,
tin,
lead,
magnesium,
aluminium,
zinc and
silver.
Extractive metallurgy: Chemical principles and reactions only (industrial details excluded);
Carbon reduction method (iron and tin);
Self reduction method (copper and lead);
Electrolytic reduction method (magnesium and aluminium);
Cyanide process (silver and gold).
Ores and minerals of iron
Magnetite
Haematite
Limonite
Iron Pyrites
Copper Pyrites
Haematite is the principal ore.
Ores and minerals of Tin
Tin stone
Ores and minerals of Copper
Copper pyrites
Malachanite
Cuprite or ruby copper
Azurite
Copper glance
Minerals of Lead
Galena
Cerussite
Anglesite
Wulfenite
Stolzite
Minerals of Magnesium
Magnesite
Carnallite
Kiesserite
Schonite
Dolomite
Epsomite
kainite
Minerals of Alumium
Corundum
Diaspore
Bauxite
Cryolite
Feldspar, Mica, Kaolinite
Alunite or Alumstone
Turquoise
Aluminates of Magensium, Iron and Manganese
Minerals of Silver
Argentite
Pyrargarite
Proustite
Horn Silver
Minerals of Zinc
(from X book by Viraf Dalal)
Zincite
Calamine
Zinc Blende
Minerals of Gold
Mainly native gold
Nagyagite
Calaverite
Sylvanite
Krennerite
Fe
The reduction of the ore
At the high temperature at the bottom of the furnace, carbon dioxide reacts with carbon to produce carbon monoxide.
It is the carbon monoxide which is the main reducing agent in the furnace.
Extraction of Tin
The ore is tin stone that contains 10% of the metal as SnO2.
SnO2 + 2C = Sn + 2CO
The moltenmetal is collected from the bottom of the blast furnace.
The metal may be purified elctrolytically
Copper
The concentrated ore is heated strongly with silicon dioxide (silica) and air or oxygen in a furnace or series of furnaces.
Electrolysis of magnesium
• Dolomite and seawater is precipitated
as insoluble magnesium hydroxide
Mg(OH)2 which is subsequently treated
with HCl to give MgCl2.
• MgCl2 is fed into electrolysis cell to
produce Mg metal at cathode and Cl2
at anode.
Conversion of the aluminium oxide into aluminium by electrolysis
The aluminium oxide is electrolysed in solution in molten cryolite, Na3AlF6. Cryolite is another aluminium ore, but is rare and expensive, and most is now made chemically.
Gold
It is now the most important and widely used process for extracting gold from ores.
The ore is first finely ground and concentrated by flotation.
To remove certain impurities, it may be roasted.
It is then mixed with a dilute solution of sodium cyanide (or potassium or calcium cyanide) while air is bubbled through it.
Soluble aurocyanide complex ion, Au(CN)-2^-1 is formed .
Silver, usually present as an impurity, also forms a similar soluble ion.
Ch.18.Exercises in Inorganic Chemistry - Core Points for Revision
Syllabus
Principles of qualitative analysis: Groups I to V (only Ag+, Hg2+, Cu2+, Pb2+, Bi3+, Fe3+, Cr3+, Al3+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Zn2+, Mn2+ and Mg2+); Nitrate, halides (excluding fluoride), sulphate, sulphide and sulphite.
------------------
Characteristic tests of Anions
Sulphide: With dilute H2SO4, H2S is evolved, which turns lead acetate paper black.
Sulphite: With dilute H2SO4, SO2 is released.
Sulphate: Soluble sulphate salt gives white precipitate of BaSO4 with BaCl2 solution which is insoluble in concentrated HCl.
Nitrite: With dilute H2SO4, nitric oxide is released.
Chloride: With conc. H2SO4,HCl gas is released.
Bromide: With conc. H2SO4,brownish vapours of Br2 are released.
Iodide: With conc H2SO4,violet vapours of I2 are released.
Nitrate: With conc H2SO4, brown vapours of NO2 are released.
Analysis of Cations
Group I cations: Ag, Hg, Pb
Group II : Hg, Cu, Bi, Cd, As, Sb, Sn
Group III: Fe, Cr, Al,
Group IV: Co, Mn, Ni, Zn
Group V: Ba, Sr, Ca
Principles of qualitative analysis: Groups I to V (only Ag+, Hg2+, Cu2+, Pb2+, Bi3+, Fe3+, Cr3+, Al3+, Ca2+, Ba2+, Zn2+, Mn2+ and Mg2+); Nitrate, halides (excluding fluoride), sulphate, sulphide and sulphite.
------------------
Characteristic tests of Anions
Sulphide: With dilute H2SO4, H2S is evolved, which turns lead acetate paper black.
Sulphite: With dilute H2SO4, SO2 is released.
Sulphate: Soluble sulphate salt gives white precipitate of BaSO4 with BaCl2 solution which is insoluble in concentrated HCl.
Nitrite: With dilute H2SO4, nitric oxide is released.
Chloride: With conc. H2SO4,HCl gas is released.
Bromide: With conc. H2SO4,brownish vapours of Br2 are released.
Iodide: With conc H2SO4,violet vapours of I2 are released.
Nitrate: With conc H2SO4, brown vapours of NO2 are released.
Analysis of Cations
Group I cations: Ag, Hg, Pb
Group II : Hg, Cu, Bi, Cd, As, Sb, Sn
Group III: Fe, Cr, Al,
Group IV: Co, Mn, Ni, Zn
Group V: Ba, Sr, Ca
Ch.19 Hybridization, Isomerism, and Nomenclature Review Points
syllabus
Hybridisation of carbon;
Sigma and pi-bonds;
Shapes of molecules;
Structural and geometrical isomerism;
Optical isomerism of compounds containing up to two asymmetric centers, (R,S and E,Z nomenclature excluded);
Conformations of ethane and butane (Newman projections);
IUPAC nomenclature of simple organic compounds (only hydrocarbons, mono-functional and bi-functional compounds);
-------------
Hybridization of carbon
sp - in alkynes - triple bond
sp2 - in alkenes - double bond
sp3 - in alkanes
sigma and pi bonds
alkanes - all sigma bonds with hydrogen atoms or single bonds with carbon atoms
alkenes - one sigma and one pi bond in double bond, and all sigma bonds with hydrogen atoms or single bonds with carbon atoms
alkynes - one sigma and two pi bonds in triple bond, and all sigma bonds with hydrogen atoms or single bonds with carbon atoms
Isomerism
The existence of two or more compounds with same molecular formula but different properties (physical, chemical or both) is known as isomerism; and the compounds themselves are called isomers.
Isomerism types:
i) Chain, nuclear or skeleton isomerism
This type of isomerism is due to the difference in the nature of the carbon chain (i.e. straight or branched) which forms the nucleus of the molecule,
ii) Position isomerism
It is due to the difference in the position of the substituent atom or group or an unsaturated linkage in the same carbon chain.
iii) Functional isomerism
This type of isomerism is due to difference in the nature of functional group present in the isomers,
iv) Metamerism
It is due to the difference in nature of alkyl groups attached to the same functional group. This type of isomerism is shown by compounds of the same homologous series.
v) Tautomerism
Tautomerism may be defined as the phenomenon in which a single compound exists in two readily interconvertible structures that differ markedly in the relative position of at least one atomic nucleus, generally hydrogen. The two different structures are known as tautomers of each other.
Stereo isomerism
When isomers have the same structural formula but differ in relative arrangement of atoms or groups in space within the molecule, these are known as stereoisomers and the phenomenon as stereoisomerism. The spatial arrangement of atoms or groups is also referred to as configuration of the molecule and thus we can say that the stereoisomers have the same structural formula but different configuration. Stereoisomerism is of two types.
(i) Geometrical isomerism
The isomers which possess the same structural formula but differ in the spatial arrangement of the groups around the double bond are known as geometrical isomers and the phenomenon is known as geometrical isomerism.
ii) Optical isomerism
This type of isomerism arises from different arrangements of atoms or groups in three dimensional space resulting in two isomers which are mirror image of each other. Optical isomers contain an asymmetric (chiral) carbon atom ( a carbon atom attached to four different atoms or groups) in their molecules.
Nomenclature
The longest possible chain is numbered from one side to the other by Arabic numerals, the direction being so chosen as to given the lowest numbers possible to the side chains. When series of locants containing the same number of terms are compared term by term, that series is “lowest” which contains the lowest number on the occasion of the first difference (Lowest sum rule). This rule is applied irrespective of the nature of the side chains.
Univalent branched radicals derived from hydrocarbon are named by prefixing the designation of the side chains to the name of the unbranched alkyl radical containing the LPCC starting from the carbon atom with the free valence, this atom being numbered as 1.
If two or more side chains of different nature are present, they are cited in alphabetical order and decided as follows
(i) The names of simple radicals are first alphabetized and the multiplying prefixes are then inserted.
Ethyl is cited before methyl, thus 4-Ethyl-3, 3-dimethylheptane
ii) The name of a complex radical is considered to start with the first letter of its complete name.
(iii) In cases where names of complex radicals are composed of identical words, preference for citation is given to that radical which contains the lowest locant at the first cited point of difference in the radical.
Hybridisation of carbon;
Sigma and pi-bonds;
Shapes of molecules;
Structural and geometrical isomerism;
Optical isomerism of compounds containing up to two asymmetric centers, (R,S and E,Z nomenclature excluded);
Conformations of ethane and butane (Newman projections);
IUPAC nomenclature of simple organic compounds (only hydrocarbons, mono-functional and bi-functional compounds);
-------------
Hybridization of carbon
sp - in alkynes - triple bond
sp2 - in alkenes - double bond
sp3 - in alkanes
sigma and pi bonds
alkanes - all sigma bonds with hydrogen atoms or single bonds with carbon atoms
alkenes - one sigma and one pi bond in double bond, and all sigma bonds with hydrogen atoms or single bonds with carbon atoms
alkynes - one sigma and two pi bonds in triple bond, and all sigma bonds with hydrogen atoms or single bonds with carbon atoms
Isomerism
The existence of two or more compounds with same molecular formula but different properties (physical, chemical or both) is known as isomerism; and the compounds themselves are called isomers.
Isomerism types:
i) Chain, nuclear or skeleton isomerism
This type of isomerism is due to the difference in the nature of the carbon chain (i.e. straight or branched) which forms the nucleus of the molecule,
ii) Position isomerism
It is due to the difference in the position of the substituent atom or group or an unsaturated linkage in the same carbon chain.
iii) Functional isomerism
This type of isomerism is due to difference in the nature of functional group present in the isomers,
iv) Metamerism
It is due to the difference in nature of alkyl groups attached to the same functional group. This type of isomerism is shown by compounds of the same homologous series.
v) Tautomerism
Tautomerism may be defined as the phenomenon in which a single compound exists in two readily interconvertible structures that differ markedly in the relative position of at least one atomic nucleus, generally hydrogen. The two different structures are known as tautomers of each other.
Stereo isomerism
When isomers have the same structural formula but differ in relative arrangement of atoms or groups in space within the molecule, these are known as stereoisomers and the phenomenon as stereoisomerism. The spatial arrangement of atoms or groups is also referred to as configuration of the molecule and thus we can say that the stereoisomers have the same structural formula but different configuration. Stereoisomerism is of two types.
(i) Geometrical isomerism
The isomers which possess the same structural formula but differ in the spatial arrangement of the groups around the double bond are known as geometrical isomers and the phenomenon is known as geometrical isomerism.
ii) Optical isomerism
This type of isomerism arises from different arrangements of atoms or groups in three dimensional space resulting in two isomers which are mirror image of each other. Optical isomers contain an asymmetric (chiral) carbon atom ( a carbon atom attached to four different atoms or groups) in their molecules.
Nomenclature
The longest possible chain is numbered from one side to the other by Arabic numerals, the direction being so chosen as to given the lowest numbers possible to the side chains. When series of locants containing the same number of terms are compared term by term, that series is “lowest” which contains the lowest number on the occasion of the first difference (Lowest sum rule). This rule is applied irrespective of the nature of the side chains.
Univalent branched radicals derived from hydrocarbon are named by prefixing the designation of the side chains to the name of the unbranched alkyl radical containing the LPCC starting from the carbon atom with the free valence, this atom being numbered as 1.
If two or more side chains of different nature are present, they are cited in alphabetical order and decided as follows
(i) The names of simple radicals are first alphabetized and the multiplying prefixes are then inserted.
Ethyl is cited before methyl, thus 4-Ethyl-3, 3-dimethylheptane
ii) The name of a complex radical is considered to start with the first letter of its complete name.
(iii) In cases where names of complex radicals are composed of identical words, preference for citation is given to that radical which contains the lowest locant at the first cited point of difference in the radical.
Ch.20 Inductive and Resonance Effects - Core Points for Review
syllabus
Resonance and hyperconjugation;
Inductive and resonance effects on acidity and basicity of organic acids and bases; Polarity and inductive effects in alkyl halides;
Reactive intermediates produced during homolytic and heterolytic bond cleavage; Formation, structure and stability of carbocations, carbanions and free radicals.
Keto-enol tautomerism;
Determination of empirical and molecular formula of simple compounds (only combustion method);
Hydrogen bonds: definition and their effects on physical properties of alcohols and carboxylic acids;
------------
These effects occur during bonding and in molecules
Inductive Effect
This effect arises when an electron withdrawing group (such as halogen) is attached to the end of a carbon atom. Due to the inductive effect, which is a permanent effect in the molecule, in case of methyl chloride, methyl group has slight positive charge
Electromeric effect
It is a temporary effect which takes between two atoms joined by a multiple bond i.e., a double or triple bond. This occurs at the requirements of the attacking reagent and involves simulataneous transfer of a shared pair of electrons of the doube or triple bond to one of the linked atoms.
Resonance Effect or Mesomeric Effect;
There are many molecules whose behaviour cannot be explained by a single Lewis structure. To explain behavior of such molecules, two or more than two structures are proposed and the molecule is thought to be a resonance hybrid of those structures.
Hyperconjugation
When a H-C bond is attached to a double bond or triple bond, the sigma electrons of the H-C bond interact with the double bond or triple bond system.
the interactions between the electrons of pi systems of multiple bonds and the adjacent sigma bonds (Single H-C bonds) of the substituent groups in organic compound is called hyperconjugation. The concept was developed by nBaker and Nathan and is also known as Baker and Nathan effect.
Bond fission.
Bond breaking is also known as bond fission.
1. Homolytic fission
2. Heterolytic fission
----------------
Heterolytic fission results in the formation of two different chemical species in the sense that one is a cation and the other an anion. Homolytic fission results in two electrically uncharged radicals.
Reaction Intermediates
The species produced during cleavage of bonds are called reaction intermediates. The important ones are:
1. Free radical: A free radical is an atom or group of atoms having an unpaired electron. Thee are produced during the homolytic fission of a covalent bond.
2. carbocation: It is a group of atoms which contain positively charged carbon having only six electrons. It is obtained by heterolytic fission of covalent bond involving carbon atoms.
3. Carbanion: It is a species containing a carbon atom carrying a negative charge. They are generated during heterolytic fission of covalent bonds containing carbon, when an atom linked to carbon goes without the bonding electrons.
4. carbene: The carbenes are reactive neutral species in which the carbon atom has six electrons in the valence shell out of which two are shared. The simplest carbene is methylene (:CH2). It is formed wbehg diazomethan is decomposed by the action of light.
CH2N2 --> :CH2 + N2
Types of attacing reagents
1. Free radicals
2. Electrophiles
3. Nucleophiles
Typesof organic reactions
1. substitution reactions
2. Addition reactions
3. Elimination reactions
--i) α-Elimination
--ii) β-Elimination
--iii)γ-Elimination
4. Rearrangement reactions
5. Condensation reactions
6. Isomerism reactions
Resonance and hyperconjugation;
Inductive and resonance effects on acidity and basicity of organic acids and bases; Polarity and inductive effects in alkyl halides;
Reactive intermediates produced during homolytic and heterolytic bond cleavage; Formation, structure and stability of carbocations, carbanions and free radicals.
Keto-enol tautomerism;
Determination of empirical and molecular formula of simple compounds (only combustion method);
Hydrogen bonds: definition and their effects on physical properties of alcohols and carboxylic acids;
------------
These effects occur during bonding and in molecules
Inductive Effect
This effect arises when an electron withdrawing group (such as halogen) is attached to the end of a carbon atom. Due to the inductive effect, which is a permanent effect in the molecule, in case of methyl chloride, methyl group has slight positive charge
Electromeric effect
It is a temporary effect which takes between two atoms joined by a multiple bond i.e., a double or triple bond. This occurs at the requirements of the attacking reagent and involves simulataneous transfer of a shared pair of electrons of the doube or triple bond to one of the linked atoms.
Resonance Effect or Mesomeric Effect;
There are many molecules whose behaviour cannot be explained by a single Lewis structure. To explain behavior of such molecules, two or more than two structures are proposed and the molecule is thought to be a resonance hybrid of those structures.
Hyperconjugation
When a H-C bond is attached to a double bond or triple bond, the sigma electrons of the H-C bond interact with the double bond or triple bond system.
the interactions between the electrons of pi systems of multiple bonds and the adjacent sigma bonds (Single H-C bonds) of the substituent groups in organic compound is called hyperconjugation. The concept was developed by nBaker and Nathan and is also known as Baker and Nathan effect.
Bond fission.
Bond breaking is also known as bond fission.
1. Homolytic fission
2. Heterolytic fission
----------------
Heterolytic fission results in the formation of two different chemical species in the sense that one is a cation and the other an anion. Homolytic fission results in two electrically uncharged radicals.
Reaction Intermediates
The species produced during cleavage of bonds are called reaction intermediates. The important ones are:
1. Free radical: A free radical is an atom or group of atoms having an unpaired electron. Thee are produced during the homolytic fission of a covalent bond.
2. carbocation: It is a group of atoms which contain positively charged carbon having only six electrons. It is obtained by heterolytic fission of covalent bond involving carbon atoms.
3. Carbanion: It is a species containing a carbon atom carrying a negative charge. They are generated during heterolytic fission of covalent bonds containing carbon, when an atom linked to carbon goes without the bonding electrons.
4. carbene: The carbenes are reactive neutral species in which the carbon atom has six electrons in the valence shell out of which two are shared. The simplest carbene is methylene (:CH2). It is formed wbehg diazomethan is decomposed by the action of light.
CH2N2 --> :CH2 + N2
Types of attacing reagents
1. Free radicals
2. Electrophiles
3. Nucleophiles
Typesof organic reactions
1. substitution reactions
2. Addition reactions
3. Elimination reactions
--i) α-Elimination
--ii) β-Elimination
--iii)γ-Elimination
4. Rearrangement reactions
5. Condensation reactions
6. Isomerism reactions
Ch.21 Alkanes - Core Points for Revision
Syllabus
Preparation, properties and reactions of alkanes:
Homologous series,
Preparation of alkanes by Wurtz reaction
Preparation of alkanes decarboxylation reactions.
physical properties of alkanes (melting points, boiling points and density); Combustion and halogenation of alkanes;
-------------
Alkanes: Introduction
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only carbon-carbon single bonds in their molecules.
Thye are also called paraffins (meaning little affinity or reactivity, we will see later why it is so).
Alkanes are divided into 1. Open chain or acyclic Alkanes and 2. CycloAlkanes or cyclic alkanes.
The general formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2
Preparation of alkanes
1. From unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes)
2. From alkyl halides
3. From carboxylic acids and their salts
1. From unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes)
By catalytic hydrogenation alkenes and alkynes are converted into alkanes (Note that this point will come in alkenes and alkynes chapter as reactions of them).
Ni, Pt or Pd in the form of fine powder are used as catalysts. A temperature of 523-573 K needs to be employed.
Methane cannot be prepared by this method because alkenes or alkynes will have two carbons at their lowest level.
2. Wurtz reaction (From alkyl halides)
When an alkyl halide (usually bromide or iodide) is treated with sodium in dry ether, a symmetrical alkane containing both twice the number of carbon atoms of alkyl halide is obtained.
3. Decarboxylation reaction
When sodium salt of a monocarboxylic acid is heated with soda lime (amixture of NaOH and Cao in the ratio of 3:1) at about 630 K, alkane is formed.
Physical properties of alkanes
1. State: CH4 to C4H10 are gases, C5H12 to C17H36 are liquids and higher ones are solids
2. Boiling point: Boiling point increases with molecular mass. Branched isomers have a lower boiling point than normal alkanes.
3. Melting point
4. Solubility: Being nonpolar, these are insoluble in water.
5. Density: Liquid alkanes lighter than water
Combustion
Large quantity of heat generated in the combustion of alkanes
Halogenation of alkanes
This involves substitution o fhydrogen atom by halogen atom. The order of reactivity is F2>Cl2>Br2(>I2). The mechanism of chlorination and bromination involves free radicals.
Preparation, properties and reactions of alkanes:
Homologous series,
Preparation of alkanes by Wurtz reaction
Preparation of alkanes decarboxylation reactions.
physical properties of alkanes (melting points, boiling points and density); Combustion and halogenation of alkanes;
-------------
Alkanes: Introduction
Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons containing only carbon-carbon single bonds in their molecules.
Thye are also called paraffins (meaning little affinity or reactivity, we will see later why it is so).
Alkanes are divided into 1. Open chain or acyclic Alkanes and 2. CycloAlkanes or cyclic alkanes.
The general formula of alkanes is CnH2n+2
Preparation of alkanes
1. From unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes)
2. From alkyl halides
3. From carboxylic acids and their salts
1. From unsaturated hydrocarbons (alkenes and alkynes)
By catalytic hydrogenation alkenes and alkynes are converted into alkanes (Note that this point will come in alkenes and alkynes chapter as reactions of them).
Ni, Pt or Pd in the form of fine powder are used as catalysts. A temperature of 523-573 K needs to be employed.
Methane cannot be prepared by this method because alkenes or alkynes will have two carbons at their lowest level.
2. Wurtz reaction (From alkyl halides)
When an alkyl halide (usually bromide or iodide) is treated with sodium in dry ether, a symmetrical alkane containing both twice the number of carbon atoms of alkyl halide is obtained.
3. Decarboxylation reaction
When sodium salt of a monocarboxylic acid is heated with soda lime (amixture of NaOH and Cao in the ratio of 3:1) at about 630 K, alkane is formed.
Physical properties of alkanes
1. State: CH4 to C4H10 are gases, C5H12 to C17H36 are liquids and higher ones are solids
2. Boiling point: Boiling point increases with molecular mass. Branched isomers have a lower boiling point than normal alkanes.
3. Melting point
4. Solubility: Being nonpolar, these are insoluble in water.
5. Density: Liquid alkanes lighter than water
Combustion
Large quantity of heat generated in the combustion of alkanes
Halogenation of alkanes
This involves substitution o fhydrogen atom by halogen atom. The order of reactivity is F2>Cl2>Br2(>I2). The mechanism of chlorination and bromination involves free radicals.
Ch.22 Alkenes - Core Points for Revision
Syllabus
Preparation, properties and reactions of alkenes:
Physical properties: boiling points, density and dipole moments
Acidity;
Acid catalysed hydration of alkenes(excluding the stereochemistry of addition and elimination);
Reactions of alkenes with KMnO4 and
Reactions of alkenes with ozone;
Reduction of alkenes;
Preparation of alkenes by elimination reactions;
Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes with X2, HX, HOX and H2O (X=halogen);
---------------
Introduction
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons having carbon-carbon double bond(C=C) in their molecules.
Their general formula is C-nH-2n.
The simplest alkene is ethene, C-2H-4
Methods of Preparation
1. Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides.
2. Dehydration of alcohols
3. Dehalogenation of vicinal dihalides
Physical properties
State: Ethene, propene and butene are gases at room temperature. From pentene onwards till alkenes having 18 carbon atoms, they are liquids. Still higher members of the family are solids.
Addition of water
water adds to alkenes in the presence of mineral acids. Hence it is termed catalytic hydration of alkenes. Addition occurs in accordance with Markownikov's rule. We get alcohols from this addition.
Oxidation with potassium permanganate (specially mentioned in syllabus)
Alkenes react with cold dilute potassium permanganate solution(alkaline) to form 1,2-diols called glycols. The glycols contain two -OH groups on adjacent carbon atoms.
Reaction with ozone
Ozone, O3, is an allotrope of oxygen that adds rapidly to carbon-carbon double bonds. Since the overall change in ozonolysis is more complex than a simple addition reaction, its mechanism has been extensively studied. Reactive intermediates called ozonides have been isolated from the interaction of ozone with alkenes, and these unstable compounds may be converted to stable products by either a reductive workup (Zn dust in water or alcohol) or an oxidative workup (hydrogen peroxide).
Reduction
-- polymerisation of ethene
-- polymerisation of vinyl chloride
-- polymerisation of styrene
Addition of hydrogen to a carbon-carbon double bond is called hydrogenation. The overall effect of such an addition is the reductive removal of the double bond functional group.
Preparation, properties and reactions of alkenes:
Physical properties: boiling points, density and dipole moments
Acidity;
Acid catalysed hydration of alkenes(excluding the stereochemistry of addition and elimination);
Reactions of alkenes with KMnO4 and
Reactions of alkenes with ozone;
Reduction of alkenes;
Preparation of alkenes by elimination reactions;
Electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes with X2, HX, HOX and H2O (X=halogen);
---------------
Introduction
Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons having carbon-carbon double bond(C=C) in their molecules.
Their general formula is C-nH-2n.
The simplest alkene is ethene, C-2H-4
Methods of Preparation
1. Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides.
2. Dehydration of alcohols
3. Dehalogenation of vicinal dihalides
Physical properties
State: Ethene, propene and butene are gases at room temperature. From pentene onwards till alkenes having 18 carbon atoms, they are liquids. Still higher members of the family are solids.
Addition of water
water adds to alkenes in the presence of mineral acids. Hence it is termed catalytic hydration of alkenes. Addition occurs in accordance with Markownikov's rule. We get alcohols from this addition.
Oxidation with potassium permanganate (specially mentioned in syllabus)
Alkenes react with cold dilute potassium permanganate solution(alkaline) to form 1,2-diols called glycols. The glycols contain two -OH groups on adjacent carbon atoms.
Reaction with ozone
Ozone, O3, is an allotrope of oxygen that adds rapidly to carbon-carbon double bonds. Since the overall change in ozonolysis is more complex than a simple addition reaction, its mechanism has been extensively studied. Reactive intermediates called ozonides have been isolated from the interaction of ozone with alkenes, and these unstable compounds may be converted to stable products by either a reductive workup (Zn dust in water or alcohol) or an oxidative workup (hydrogen peroxide).
Reduction
-- polymerisation of ethene
-- polymerisation of vinyl chloride
-- polymerisation of styrene
Addition of hydrogen to a carbon-carbon double bond is called hydrogenation. The overall effect of such an addition is the reductive removal of the double bond functional group.
Wednesday, January 16, 2008
IIT JEE Preparation Last 15 days
Many people are giving very useful advice for preparing for IIT JEE. As I keep on looking for more information on the topic, more or more good pieces come into view.
The following advice is from http://how-to-answers.blogspot.com/2007/08/how-to-crack-iit-jee.html
You have to work around the three pillars of success:
1. conceptual clarity - comes from studying carefully the first time itself to understand each and every sentence. Listen carefully in the class, come back and study the material immediately and then seek clarification from the faculty as early as possible
2. familiarity: Familiarity comes from studying it matter number of times, remembering at appropriate occasions like when it has got link with some other chapters, and helping friends when they have a problem with the chapter.
3. application expertise. : Comes by solving problems first in the textbook, then past JEE question papers, and then various model papers, test papers etc. Participating in olympiad etc, will help.
Guidelines for final round of preparation for IIT-JEE.
15 days before IIT-JEE
Scan all the topics in a stipulated time frame.
Plan your schedule for your revision and exercise.
Start concentration on the topics that you have covered rather wasting time on new topics particularly when exam is just 15 days ahead.
Revise all important concepts and formulae to recall them without any effort or thought.
The IIT-JEE test carries negative marking for wrong answer. So your familiarity with concepts would play a critical role.
7 days before IIT-JEE
Try to plan for Time Management during examination
Divide the total time into components based on total number of questions and your conceptual knowledge.
Develop the habit of gauging question whether you will be able to solve it.
On the day of JEE
You should reach the test centre at least half an hour before the exam.
Some students complain of nausea or headache during the test of just before the test. So keep relevant medicine handy.
During the IIT-JEE
Enter the examination hall in a positive mood to crack the test.
Re-check your stationeries and synchronize your wristwatch with the center’s clock
Invest time in reading the instructions quickly.
Be attentive in filling the information sheet. Clarify even your simplest doubt with the exam supervisor.
Do not use a red pen or pen where data is to be filled with pencil only.
Read all instructions carefully. Also see, which question carry negative marks.
Give all three subjects equal time that means 60 minutes each for physics, chemistry and mathematics.
Concentrate on one question at a time.
Use a diagram or value of constants given in the paper in solving a numerical. If the value is not mentioned, use the one you remember.
Carry out all rough work only in the space given in the paper.
Attempting to solve all questions in haste increases the chances of error. It is better to solve slightly fewer questions faultlessly.
While attempting questions, go on segregating them by putting some identification mark. These questions are from topics that you have prepared
The following advice is from http://how-to-answers.blogspot.com/2007/08/how-to-crack-iit-jee.html
You have to work around the three pillars of success:
1. conceptual clarity - comes from studying carefully the first time itself to understand each and every sentence. Listen carefully in the class, come back and study the material immediately and then seek clarification from the faculty as early as possible
2. familiarity: Familiarity comes from studying it matter number of times, remembering at appropriate occasions like when it has got link with some other chapters, and helping friends when they have a problem with the chapter.
3. application expertise. : Comes by solving problems first in the textbook, then past JEE question papers, and then various model papers, test papers etc. Participating in olympiad etc, will help.
Guidelines for final round of preparation for IIT-JEE.
15 days before IIT-JEE
Scan all the topics in a stipulated time frame.
Plan your schedule for your revision and exercise.
Start concentration on the topics that you have covered rather wasting time on new topics particularly when exam is just 15 days ahead.
Revise all important concepts and formulae to recall them without any effort or thought.
The IIT-JEE test carries negative marking for wrong answer. So your familiarity with concepts would play a critical role.
7 days before IIT-JEE
Try to plan for Time Management during examination
Divide the total time into components based on total number of questions and your conceptual knowledge.
Develop the habit of gauging question whether you will be able to solve it.
On the day of JEE
You should reach the test centre at least half an hour before the exam.
Some students complain of nausea or headache during the test of just before the test. So keep relevant medicine handy.
During the IIT-JEE
Enter the examination hall in a positive mood to crack the test.
Re-check your stationeries and synchronize your wristwatch with the center’s clock
Invest time in reading the instructions quickly.
Be attentive in filling the information sheet. Clarify even your simplest doubt with the exam supervisor.
Do not use a red pen or pen where data is to be filled with pencil only.
Read all instructions carefully. Also see, which question carry negative marks.
Give all three subjects equal time that means 60 minutes each for physics, chemistry and mathematics.
Concentrate on one question at a time.
Use a diagram or value of constants given in the paper in solving a numerical. If the value is not mentioned, use the one you remember.
Carry out all rough work only in the space given in the paper.
Attempting to solve all questions in haste increases the chances of error. It is better to solve slightly fewer questions faultlessly.
While attempting questions, go on segregating them by putting some identification mark. These questions are from topics that you have prepared
Ch.23 Alkynes - Core Points for Revision
syllabus
Preparation, properties and reactions of alkynes:
Physical properties of alkynes (boiling points, density and dipole moments);
Acidity of alkynes;
Acid catalysed hydration of alkynes (excluding the stereochemistry of addition and elimination);
Reduction of alkynes;
Preparation of alkynes by elimination reactions;
Addition reactions of alkynes;
Metal acetylides.
-----------------
1. Alkynes are hydrocarbons with triple bonds. General formula CnH2n
2. Methods of Preparation of Alkynes;
1. Dehydrohalogenation of vicinal dihalides
2. Reaction of metal acetalides with primary alkyl halides. This method can be used to generate large alkyne from the smaller one.
3. Physical properties
State; first three members are gases at room temperature. thenext eight are liquids while the higher ones are solids.
Solubulity: are mostly insoluble in water nbut are soluble in organic solvents such as petroleum, ether, carbon tetrachlorde. benzene etc.
4. Chemical Properties
The alkynes have at least one triple bond in them, therefore, they are quite reactive chemically.
They readily take part in addition reactions and can also be easily oxidized.
5. Acidic property of acetylene
Acetylene and other terminal alkynes (1-alkynes) are weakly acidic in character.
They react with strong bases like NaNH2 ( sodium in liquid ammonia) to form sodium acetylide derivatives known as acetylides or alkynides.
6. Addition of water (hydration of alkynes) (
In the presence of acid (H2SO4) and HgSO-4, a molecule of water adds to the triple bond at 348K. The catalyst in this reaction is HgSO4 (Mercuric sulphate). The final products of this reaction are carbonyl compounds aldehydes and ketones.
Initially enol is formed which is raidly converted into an equilibrium mixture containing keto form in excess. Enol is so called because it contains 'ene' (double bond) and an alcoholic group (ol).
7. Reduction of Alkynes
Reaction Type: Addition
Alkynes can be reduced to trans-alkenes using Na in NH3 (l)
This reaction is stereospecific giving only the trans-alkene via an anti addition.
8. Preparation of alkynes by elimination reactions; To be posted
9. Formation of metal acetylides
Acytelene reacts with Na and LI liberating H-2 gas and forming metal acetylide. Therefore acetylene has chemical behaviour similar to acids.
Heavy metal ions mainly, Ag+ and Cu+ react with acetylinic hydrogen (hydrogen atom in acetylene) to form insoluble acetylides.
Preparation, properties and reactions of alkynes:
Physical properties of alkynes (boiling points, density and dipole moments);
Acidity of alkynes;
Acid catalysed hydration of alkynes (excluding the stereochemistry of addition and elimination);
Reduction of alkynes;
Preparation of alkynes by elimination reactions;
Addition reactions of alkynes;
Metal acetylides.
-----------------
1. Alkynes are hydrocarbons with triple bonds. General formula CnH2n
2. Methods of Preparation of Alkynes;
1. Dehydrohalogenation of vicinal dihalides
2. Reaction of metal acetalides with primary alkyl halides. This method can be used to generate large alkyne from the smaller one.
3. Physical properties
State; first three members are gases at room temperature. thenext eight are liquids while the higher ones are solids.
Solubulity: are mostly insoluble in water nbut are soluble in organic solvents such as petroleum, ether, carbon tetrachlorde. benzene etc.
4. Chemical Properties
The alkynes have at least one triple bond in them, therefore, they are quite reactive chemically.
They readily take part in addition reactions and can also be easily oxidized.
5. Acidic property of acetylene
Acetylene and other terminal alkynes (1-alkynes) are weakly acidic in character.
They react with strong bases like NaNH2 ( sodium in liquid ammonia) to form sodium acetylide derivatives known as acetylides or alkynides.
6. Addition of water (hydration of alkynes) (
In the presence of acid (H2SO4) and HgSO-4, a molecule of water adds to the triple bond at 348K. The catalyst in this reaction is HgSO4 (Mercuric sulphate). The final products of this reaction are carbonyl compounds aldehydes and ketones.
Initially enol is formed which is raidly converted into an equilibrium mixture containing keto form in excess. Enol is so called because it contains 'ene' (double bond) and an alcoholic group (ol).
7. Reduction of Alkynes
Reaction Type: Addition
Alkynes can be reduced to trans-alkenes using Na in NH3 (l)
This reaction is stereospecific giving only the trans-alkene via an anti addition.
8. Preparation of alkynes by elimination reactions; To be posted
9. Formation of metal acetylides
Acytelene reacts with Na and LI liberating H-2 gas and forming metal acetylide. Therefore acetylene has chemical behaviour similar to acids.
Heavy metal ions mainly, Ag+ and Cu+ react with acetylinic hydrogen (hydrogen atom in acetylene) to form insoluble acetylides.
Ch.24 Benzene - Core Points for Revision
syllabus
Structure
Aromaticity
Electrophile Substitution Reactions
---Halogenation
---Nitration
--- Sulphonation
--- Friedel-Crafts Alkylation
--- Friedel-Crafts Acylation
Effect of --, m- and p- directing groups in mono-substituted benzenes
---------
1. Benzene has the molecular formula C6H6. It has hexagonal ring of six carbon atoms with three double bonds in alternate positions.
Arenes are the aromatic hydrocarbons which contain one or more hexagonal rings of carbon atoms with double bonds in alternate positions.
2. Preparation of benzene and its homologues
1. From alkynes: acetylene and other alkynes polymerise at high temperatures to give benzene and other arenes.
3C2H2 gives C6H6
Benzene was first synthesized by Berthelot by passing acetylene through red hot iron tube.
2 Decarboxylation of aromatic acids: by heating sodium benzoate with soda lime
Decarboxylation: Removal carboxyl group
3. From phenol: by distillation of phenol with zinc.
3. Physical properties
i) colour less liquids up to eight carbon atoms
ii) aromatic hydrocarbons are insoluble in water ut soluble in organic solvents.
iii) They are inflammable and burn with sooty flame
4. Chemical properties
Even though double bonds are present, benzene is quite stable and does not undergo common addition reactions undergone by alkenes.
Benzene and other arenes undergo following types of reactions.
1. substitution
2. addition
3. oxidation
5. Halogenation
benzene will react with a mixture of Cl-2 and FeCl-3.
The output is a combination of benzene with Cl, Cl diplacing one hydrogen atom from benzene(Chlorobenzene).
6. Nitration
A mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid is the nitrating agent.
7. Sulphonation
The product is a combination Benzene and SO-3H that displaced one hydrogen atom from benzene.
For sulphonation we require excess of H-2SO-4 along with SO-3.
8. Friedel-Crafts Alkylation
Benzene reacts with a combination of alkyl halide and AlCl-3. AlCl-3 acts as a Lewis acid.
The alkyl group replaces one hydrogen atom in benzene.
9. Friedel-Crafts Acylation
Acylation is the term given to substituting an acyl group such as CH-3CO- into another molecule. An acyl group is a hydrocarbon group attached to a carbon-oxygen double bond.
The most commonly used example of an acyl group is the ethanoyl group, CH3CO-.
10. Effect of o-, m- and p- directing groups in mono-substituted benzenes
In planning syntheses based on substitution reactions of mono-substituted benzenes, you must be able to predict in advance which of the available positions of the ring are most likely to be substituted.
Basically, three problems are involved in the substitution reactions of aromatic compounds: (a) proof of the structures of the possible isomers, o, m, p, that are formed; (b) the percentage of each isomer formed, if the product is a mixture; and (c) the reactivity of the compound being substituted relative to some standard substance, usually benzene.
Structure
Aromaticity
Electrophile Substitution Reactions
---Halogenation
---Nitration
--- Sulphonation
--- Friedel-Crafts Alkylation
--- Friedel-Crafts Acylation
Effect of --, m- and p- directing groups in mono-substituted benzenes
---------
1. Benzene has the molecular formula C6H6. It has hexagonal ring of six carbon atoms with three double bonds in alternate positions.
Arenes are the aromatic hydrocarbons which contain one or more hexagonal rings of carbon atoms with double bonds in alternate positions.
2. Preparation of benzene and its homologues
1. From alkynes: acetylene and other alkynes polymerise at high temperatures to give benzene and other arenes.
3C2H2 gives C6H6
Benzene was first synthesized by Berthelot by passing acetylene through red hot iron tube.
2 Decarboxylation of aromatic acids: by heating sodium benzoate with soda lime
Decarboxylation: Removal carboxyl group
3. From phenol: by distillation of phenol with zinc.
3. Physical properties
i) colour less liquids up to eight carbon atoms
ii) aromatic hydrocarbons are insoluble in water ut soluble in organic solvents.
iii) They are inflammable and burn with sooty flame
4. Chemical properties
Even though double bonds are present, benzene is quite stable and does not undergo common addition reactions undergone by alkenes.
Benzene and other arenes undergo following types of reactions.
1. substitution
2. addition
3. oxidation
5. Halogenation
benzene will react with a mixture of Cl-2 and FeCl-3.
The output is a combination of benzene with Cl, Cl diplacing one hydrogen atom from benzene(Chlorobenzene).
6. Nitration
A mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid is the nitrating agent.
7. Sulphonation
The product is a combination Benzene and SO-3H that displaced one hydrogen atom from benzene.
For sulphonation we require excess of H-2SO-4 along with SO-3.
8. Friedel-Crafts Alkylation
Benzene reacts with a combination of alkyl halide and AlCl-3. AlCl-3 acts as a Lewis acid.
The alkyl group replaces one hydrogen atom in benzene.
9. Friedel-Crafts Acylation
Acylation is the term given to substituting an acyl group such as CH-3CO- into another molecule. An acyl group is a hydrocarbon group attached to a carbon-oxygen double bond.
The most commonly used example of an acyl group is the ethanoyl group, CH3CO-.
10. Effect of o-, m- and p- directing groups in mono-substituted benzenes
In planning syntheses based on substitution reactions of mono-substituted benzenes, you must be able to predict in advance which of the available positions of the ring are most likely to be substituted.
Basically, three problems are involved in the substitution reactions of aromatic compounds: (a) proof of the structures of the possible isomers, o, m, p, that are formed; (b) the percentage of each isomer formed, if the product is a mixture; and (c) the reactivity of the compound being substituted relative to some standard substance, usually benzene.
Ch. 25. Alcohols - Core Points for Revision
syllabus
Alcohols:
esterification,
dehydration and oxidation,
reaction with sodium,
reaction with phosphorus halides,
reaction with ZnCl2/conc.-HCl,
conversion of alcohols into aldehydes and ketones;
---------
1. The hydroxy derivatives of aliphatic hydrocarbons are termed alcohols. They contain one or more hydroxyl (OH) groups.
Example:
Methyl Alcohol CH-3OH
Ehtyl alcohol C-2H-5OH also written as CH-3CH-2OH
Propyl alcohol C-3H-7OH also written as CH-3CH-2CH-2OH
2. Methods of Preparation of Alcohols
1. preparation from haloalkanes
2. By reduction of aldehydes, ketones and esters
3. Physical Properties:
4.Reaction with active metals - acidic character
5. Esterification
Alcohols react with monocarboxylic acids, in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid or dry HCL gas as catalyst, to from esters. This reaction is known as esterification.
6. Dehydration
When alcohols are heated with conc. or H3PO4, at 443 K, they get dehydrated to form alkenes.
The ease of dehydration of alcohol follows the order 3>2>1 which is also the order of stability of carbocation.
7. Oxidation
The oxidation of alcohols can be carried out by a number of reagents such as acqueous, alkalineor acidified KMnO4, acidified Na2Cr2O7, nitric acid, chromic acid, etc.
8. Reaction with sodium
The cleavage in this reaction will be in the OH bond. Alcohols react with active metals to liberate hydrogen gas an form metal alkoxide.
Ethanol or Ethyl alcohol reacts with sodium to gibve Sodium ethoxide and hydrogen
9. Reaction with phosphorus halides
Phosphorus halides such as PCl5, Pcl3, PBr3 and PI3 react with alcohols to form corresponding haloalkanes.
10. Reaction with ZnCl2/conc.-HCl
This is a reaction or test to distinguish various categories of alcohols and is termed Lucas test.
In this test, an alcohol is treated with an equimolar mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and anhydrous ZnCl2 (called Lucas reagent).
11. Conversion of alcohols into aldehydes and ketones
Oxidation of primary alcohol gives aldehydes.
Oxidation of secondary alcohols gives ketones.
It is difficult to oxidize tertiary alcohols.
Alcohols:
esterification,
dehydration and oxidation,
reaction with sodium,
reaction with phosphorus halides,
reaction with ZnCl2/conc.-HCl,
conversion of alcohols into aldehydes and ketones;
---------
1. The hydroxy derivatives of aliphatic hydrocarbons are termed alcohols. They contain one or more hydroxyl (OH) groups.
Example:
Methyl Alcohol CH-3OH
Ehtyl alcohol C-2H-5OH also written as CH-3CH-2OH
Propyl alcohol C-3H-7OH also written as CH-3CH-2CH-2OH
2. Methods of Preparation of Alcohols
1. preparation from haloalkanes
2. By reduction of aldehydes, ketones and esters
3. Physical Properties:
4.Reaction with active metals - acidic character
5. Esterification
Alcohols react with monocarboxylic acids, in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid or dry HCL gas as catalyst, to from esters. This reaction is known as esterification.
6. Dehydration
When alcohols are heated with conc. or H3PO4, at 443 K, they get dehydrated to form alkenes.
The ease of dehydration of alcohol follows the order 3>2>1 which is also the order of stability of carbocation.
7. Oxidation
The oxidation of alcohols can be carried out by a number of reagents such as acqueous, alkalineor acidified KMnO4, acidified Na2Cr2O7, nitric acid, chromic acid, etc.
8. Reaction with sodium
The cleavage in this reaction will be in the OH bond. Alcohols react with active metals to liberate hydrogen gas an form metal alkoxide.
Ethanol or Ethyl alcohol reacts with sodium to gibve Sodium ethoxide and hydrogen
9. Reaction with phosphorus halides
Phosphorus halides such as PCl5, Pcl3, PBr3 and PI3 react with alcohols to form corresponding haloalkanes.
10. Reaction with ZnCl2/conc.-HCl
This is a reaction or test to distinguish various categories of alcohols and is termed Lucas test.
In this test, an alcohol is treated with an equimolar mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and anhydrous ZnCl2 (called Lucas reagent).
11. Conversion of alcohols into aldehydes and ketones
Oxidation of primary alcohol gives aldehydes.
Oxidation of secondary alcohols gives ketones.
It is difficult to oxidize tertiary alcohols.
Ch.26 Alkyl and Aryl Halides - Core Points for Revision
syllabus
METHODS OF PREPARATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
charateristic reactions
Specially highlighed topics
Rearrangement reactions of alkyl carbocation,
Grignard reactions,
Nucleophilic substitution reactions;
-------------
1. When hydrogen atom or atoms of alkanes are replaced by the corresponding number of halogen atoms, the compounds are called halogen derivatives of alkanes.
2. Methods of preparation
1. From hydrocarbons
a) from alkanes: halogens react with alkanes in the presence of uv light to form haloalkanes.
b) from alkenes: by the electrophylic addition of halogen acids (HBr, HCl, or HI)
3. The only methyl halide which is a liquid is iodomethane.chloroethane is a gas.
4. Nucleophilic substitution in primary halogenoalkanes
The nucleophilic substitution reaction - an SN2 reaction - S stands for substitution, N for nucleophilic, and the 2 is order of reaction. It is because the initial stage of the reaction involves two species - the bromoethane and the Nucleophilic (Nu-) ion.
5. Nucleophilic substitution in tertiary halogenoalkanes - The nucleophilic substitution reaction - an SN1 reaction (1 denotes 1st order)
6.
METHODS OF PREPARATION
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
charateristic reactions
Specially highlighed topics
Rearrangement reactions of alkyl carbocation,
Grignard reactions,
Nucleophilic substitution reactions;
-------------
1. When hydrogen atom or atoms of alkanes are replaced by the corresponding number of halogen atoms, the compounds are called halogen derivatives of alkanes.
2. Methods of preparation
1. From hydrocarbons
a) from alkanes: halogens react with alkanes in the presence of uv light to form haloalkanes.
b) from alkenes: by the electrophylic addition of halogen acids (HBr, HCl, or HI)
3. The only methyl halide which is a liquid is iodomethane.chloroethane is a gas.
4. Nucleophilic substitution in primary halogenoalkanes
The nucleophilic substitution reaction - an SN2 reaction - S stands for substitution, N for nucleophilic, and the 2 is order of reaction. It is because the initial stage of the reaction involves two species - the bromoethane and the Nucleophilic (Nu-) ion.
5. Nucleophilic substitution in tertiary halogenoalkanes - The nucleophilic substitution reaction - an SN1 reaction (1 denotes 1st order)
6.
Ch.27 Aldehydes and Ketones - Core Points for Review
syllabus
Aldehydes and Ketones:
oxidation,
reduction,
oxime and
hydrazone formation;
aldol condensation,
Perkin reaction;
Cannizzaro reaction;
haloform reaction and
nucleophilic addition reactions (Grignard addition);
--------
Aldehydes contain carbonyl group C=O as functional group and the carbonyl atom carries at least one H atom.
Ketones
In ketones, also carbonyl group C=O is the functional group. But the carbonyl carbon does not contain any H atoms, but it is attached to two alkyl or aryl groups.
Getting an aldehyde from methylbenzene - by oxidation
Getting ketone from alcohols - By oxidation of secondary alcohols
Aldehydes and ketones are polar molecules because the C=O bond has a
dipole moment:
• Their polarity makes aldehydes and ketones have higher boiling points than
alkenes of similar molecular weight.
Oxidation
Carbonyl groups in aldehydes and ketones may be oxidized to form
compounds at the next “oxidation level”, that of carboxylic acids
Addition Using Grignard Reagents• Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols may be formed in the reactions of
aldehydes or ketones with Grignard reagents.
Aldehydes and Ketones:
oxidation,
reduction,
oxime and
hydrazone formation;
aldol condensation,
Perkin reaction;
Cannizzaro reaction;
haloform reaction and
nucleophilic addition reactions (Grignard addition);
--------
Aldehydes contain carbonyl group C=O as functional group and the carbonyl atom carries at least one H atom.
Ketones
In ketones, also carbonyl group C=O is the functional group. But the carbonyl carbon does not contain any H atoms, but it is attached to two alkyl or aryl groups.
Getting an aldehyde from methylbenzene - by oxidation
Getting ketone from alcohols - By oxidation of secondary alcohols
Aldehydes and ketones are polar molecules because the C=O bond has a
dipole moment:
• Their polarity makes aldehydes and ketones have higher boiling points than
alkenes of similar molecular weight.
Oxidation
Carbonyl groups in aldehydes and ketones may be oxidized to form
compounds at the next “oxidation level”, that of carboxylic acids
Addition Using Grignard Reagents• Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols may be formed in the reactions of
aldehydes or ketones with Grignard reagents.
Ch.28 Carboxylic Acid - Core Points for Revision
JEE syllabus
Carboxylic acids:
Preparation, properties
Characteristic reactions
formation of esters,
acid chlorides and amides,
ester hydrolysis;
---------
1. Carboxylic acids are the compound containing carboxyl group in their molecules.
-C with a double bond with oxygen and single bond with OH
2. These acides can be aliphatic or aromatic.
aliphatic acids:
Formic acid HCOOH
Acetic acid CH-3COOH
Isobutyric acid (Branched)
aromatic acids
Bezoic acid : H in benzene substituted by COOH
m-Nitrobenzoic acid: One more H substituted by NO-2
o-Toluic acid (o refers to ortho) Benzoic acid with one more H substituted by CH-3
3. Methods of Preparation of Monocarboxylic Acids:
1. From oxidation of primary alcohols
2. By oxidation of aldehydes and ketones.
4.
Carboxylic acids:
Preparation, properties
Characteristic reactions
formation of esters,
acid chlorides and amides,
ester hydrolysis;
---------
1. Carboxylic acids are the compound containing carboxyl group in their molecules.
-C with a double bond with oxygen and single bond with OH
2. These acides can be aliphatic or aromatic.
aliphatic acids:
Formic acid HCOOH
Acetic acid CH-3COOH
Isobutyric acid (Branched)
aromatic acids
Bezoic acid : H in benzene substituted by COOH
m-Nitrobenzoic acid: One more H substituted by NO-2
o-Toluic acid (o refers to ortho) Benzoic acid with one more H substituted by CH-3
3. Methods of Preparation of Monocarboxylic Acids:
1. From oxidation of primary alcohols
2. By oxidation of aldehydes and ketones.
4.
Ch.29 Phenols - Core Points for Revision
JEE syllabus
Phenols:
Preparation, Physical and Chemical properties
specially highlighted topics
Acidity,
electrophilic substitution reactions (halogenation, nitration and sulphonation);
Reimer-Tieman reaction,
Kolbe reaction.
----------
Phenols are aromatic hydroxy compounds. In phenols, one or more hydroxyl group is directly attached to the aromatic (benzene) nucleus.
If OH group is not directly attached to be carbon atom in the benzene ring, but present in the molecule as a part of the alkyl side chain group, then the compound is not termed as phenol.It is called aromatic alcohol because it resembles aliphatic alcohols in its characteristics.
By decarboxylation of sodium salt of salicyclic acid
Fusion of sodium salicylate with soda lime (NaOH and CaO mixture).
sodium phenoxide is formed. This on acidification gives phenol.
State and smell: Phenols are colourless crystalline solids or liquids. They have characteristic phenolic odours.
Boiling points: Higher than the boiling points of the aromatic hydrocarbons of comparable molecular masses.
Bromination
Action of Bromine water on phenol: When phenol is treated with bromine water, it gets decolourised giving a white precipitate of 2,4,6, tribromophenol.
Action of Bromine in CS-2 on phenol:o-Bromophenol + p-Bromophenol mixture is obtained. p-Bromophenol is the major product.
Nitration
Action of dilute nitirc acid on phenol: a mixture of o-nitrophenol and p-nitrophenol is formed.
Action of conc. nitric acid in the presence of conc. sulphuric acid on phenol: 2,4,6-trinitrophenol is formed. This is picric acid.
Sulphonation
Action of conc. sulphuric acid at different temperatures on phenol:
Pheno reacts with conc. sulphuric acid to form a mixture of o-, and p-phenol sulphonic acid.
At low temperature about 288 to 293 K, o-phenol sulphonic acid is the main product formed.
At high temperature about 373 K, p-phenol sulphonic acid is the main product formed.
Acidity of Phenols
Phenols are weakly acidic in nature (Ka = 10^-10).
They turn blue litmus read and react with alkali metals and alkalies to form their salts.
The acidic character of phenol is due to polar OH bond.
Kolbe's reaction
When sodium phenoxide is heated with carbon dioxide at about 400K and under 4 ot 7 atmospheric pressure, sodium salicylate is formed as a major product. This on acidification gives salicylic acid. A small amount of para isomer is also obtained and if the temperature is allowed to rise above 410 K, the para isomer dominates.
Reimer-Tiemann reaction
When phenol is treated with choloroform and aqueous sodium hydroxide at 340 K follwoed by hydrolysis, an aldehydic group, -CHO group is introduced in the ring at a position ortho to the phenol group (OH group).
Ortho hydroxy benzaldehyde or salicylaldehyde is formed as the product of the reaction.
In addition, small amount of p-salicylaldehyde is also formed
In place of chloroform, carbon tetrachloride can be used. I this case o-salicylic acid is formed as the major product.
Phenols:
Preparation, Physical and Chemical properties
specially highlighted topics
Acidity,
electrophilic substitution reactions (halogenation, nitration and sulphonation);
Reimer-Tieman reaction,
Kolbe reaction.
----------
Phenols are aromatic hydroxy compounds. In phenols, one or more hydroxyl group is directly attached to the aromatic (benzene) nucleus.
If OH group is not directly attached to be carbon atom in the benzene ring, but present in the molecule as a part of the alkyl side chain group, then the compound is not termed as phenol.It is called aromatic alcohol because it resembles aliphatic alcohols in its characteristics.
By decarboxylation of sodium salt of salicyclic acid
Fusion of sodium salicylate with soda lime (NaOH and CaO mixture).
sodium phenoxide is formed. This on acidification gives phenol.
State and smell: Phenols are colourless crystalline solids or liquids. They have characteristic phenolic odours.
Boiling points: Higher than the boiling points of the aromatic hydrocarbons of comparable molecular masses.
Bromination
Action of Bromine water on phenol: When phenol is treated with bromine water, it gets decolourised giving a white precipitate of 2,4,6, tribromophenol.
Action of Bromine in CS-2 on phenol:o-Bromophenol + p-Bromophenol mixture is obtained. p-Bromophenol is the major product.
Nitration
Action of dilute nitirc acid on phenol: a mixture of o-nitrophenol and p-nitrophenol is formed.
Action of conc. nitric acid in the presence of conc. sulphuric acid on phenol: 2,4,6-trinitrophenol is formed. This is picric acid.
Sulphonation
Action of conc. sulphuric acid at different temperatures on phenol:
Pheno reacts with conc. sulphuric acid to form a mixture of o-, and p-phenol sulphonic acid.
At low temperature about 288 to 293 K, o-phenol sulphonic acid is the main product formed.
At high temperature about 373 K, p-phenol sulphonic acid is the main product formed.
Acidity of Phenols
Phenols are weakly acidic in nature (Ka = 10^-10).
They turn blue litmus read and react with alkali metals and alkalies to form their salts.
The acidic character of phenol is due to polar OH bond.
Kolbe's reaction
When sodium phenoxide is heated with carbon dioxide at about 400K and under 4 ot 7 atmospheric pressure, sodium salicylate is formed as a major product. This on acidification gives salicylic acid. A small amount of para isomer is also obtained and if the temperature is allowed to rise above 410 K, the para isomer dominates.
Reimer-Tiemann reaction
When phenol is treated with choloroform and aqueous sodium hydroxide at 340 K follwoed by hydrolysis, an aldehydic group, -CHO group is introduced in the ring at a position ortho to the phenol group (OH group).
Ortho hydroxy benzaldehyde or salicylaldehyde is formed as the product of the reaction.
In addition, small amount of p-salicylaldehyde is also formed
In place of chloroform, carbon tetrachloride can be used. I this case o-salicylic acid is formed as the major product.
Ch 30 Amines - Core Points
EE Syllabus
Amines:
Preparation, Properties, Reactions
Characteristic reactions
Basicity of substituted anilines and aliphatic amines,
Preparation from nitro compounds,
Reaction with nitrous acid,
Azo coupling reaction of diazonium salts of aromatic amines,
Sandmeyer and related reactions of diazonium salts;
Carbylamine reaction;
Amines are regarded as derivatives of ammonia in which one, two or all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl group.
Preparation from nitro compounds,
Reduction of nitro compound to obtain amine can be done by using either molecular hydrogen and a catalyst (Ni or Pt) or a metal (usually granulated tin) and an acid (HCl)
Reaction with nitrous acid,
Aliphatic primary amine in reactin with nitrous acid forms unstable diazonium salt which on decomposing liberates nitrogen and mixture of alcohols and alkenes.
Basicity of substituted anilines and aliphatic amines,
Nitrogen of amines contains lone pair of electrons, which can be shared with other species and thus these act as Lewis bases.
Azo coupling reaction of diazonium salts of aromatic amines,
Sandmeyer and related reactions of diazonium salts;
The diazonium salt is treated with cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide.
Carbylamine reaction;
The treatment of a primary amine with chloroform and alcoholic potash produces carbylamine (isocyanide) which has most offensive smell. This reaction is not exhibited by secondary and tertiary amines.
Amines:
Preparation, Properties, Reactions
Characteristic reactions
Basicity of substituted anilines and aliphatic amines,
Preparation from nitro compounds,
Reaction with nitrous acid,
Azo coupling reaction of diazonium salts of aromatic amines,
Sandmeyer and related reactions of diazonium salts;
Carbylamine reaction;
Amines are regarded as derivatives of ammonia in which one, two or all three hydrogen atoms are replaced by alkyl or aryl group.
Preparation from nitro compounds,
Reduction of nitro compound to obtain amine can be done by using either molecular hydrogen and a catalyst (Ni or Pt) or a metal (usually granulated tin) and an acid (HCl)
Reaction with nitrous acid,
Aliphatic primary amine in reactin with nitrous acid forms unstable diazonium salt which on decomposing liberates nitrogen and mixture of alcohols and alkenes.
Basicity of substituted anilines and aliphatic amines,
Nitrogen of amines contains lone pair of electrons, which can be shared with other species and thus these act as Lewis bases.
Azo coupling reaction of diazonium salts of aromatic amines,
Sandmeyer and related reactions of diazonium salts;
The diazonium salt is treated with cuprous chloride or cuprous bromide.
Carbylamine reaction;
The treatment of a primary amine with chloroform and alcoholic potash produces carbylamine (isocyanide) which has most offensive smell. This reaction is not exhibited by secondary and tertiary amines.
Ch. 31 Carbohydrates - Core Points
JEE Syllabus
Carbohydrates:
Classification;
mono and di-saccharides (glucose and sucrose);
Oxidation, reduction,
glycoside formation and hydrolysis of sucrose.
----------
1. Carbohydrates means "hydrates of carbon".
These are poly-hydroxylated-aldehydes or poly-hydroxylated-ketones. The general formula is C-x(H-2O)-y
2. Carbohydrates are classified as:
Monosaccharides, Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides
3. Glucose is a monosaccharide and it forms a six membered ring of five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.
4. When acqueous solution of glucose is treated with sodium amalgam or sodium borohydride, it is reduced to sorbitol (or glucito) a hexahydric alcohol.
5. Mild oxidizing agents such as bromine water, silver oxide, sodium hypobromite etc. oxidize glucose ot gluconic acid converting -CHO group to -COOH group.
6. The important members belonging to disaccharides are sucrose, maltose and lactose.
7. On hydrolysis these give two molecules of monosaccharides.
8. Sucrose in comination with water (hydrolysis) gives glucose and fructose.
9. Sucrose is composed of alpha-D-glucose and beta-D-fructose. These units are held together by alpha, beta-glycosidic linkage between C1 (carbon 1) of the glucose unit (pyranose ring) and C2 of the fructose unit (furanose ring).
10. Reducing sugars are easily oxidized to give carboxylic acid.
Carbohydrates:
Classification;
mono and di-saccharides (glucose and sucrose);
Oxidation, reduction,
glycoside formation and hydrolysis of sucrose.
----------
1. Carbohydrates means "hydrates of carbon".
These are poly-hydroxylated-aldehydes or poly-hydroxylated-ketones. The general formula is C-x(H-2O)-y
2. Carbohydrates are classified as:
Monosaccharides, Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides
3. Glucose is a monosaccharide and it forms a six membered ring of five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom.
4. When acqueous solution of glucose is treated with sodium amalgam or sodium borohydride, it is reduced to sorbitol (or glucito) a hexahydric alcohol.
5. Mild oxidizing agents such as bromine water, silver oxide, sodium hypobromite etc. oxidize glucose ot gluconic acid converting -CHO group to -COOH group.
6. The important members belonging to disaccharides are sucrose, maltose and lactose.
7. On hydrolysis these give two molecules of monosaccharides.
8. Sucrose in comination with water (hydrolysis) gives glucose and fructose.
9. Sucrose is composed of alpha-D-glucose and beta-D-fructose. These units are held together by alpha, beta-glycosidic linkage between C1 (carbon 1) of the glucose unit (pyranose ring) and C2 of the fructose unit (furanose ring).
10. Reducing sugars are easily oxidized to give carboxylic acid.
Ch 32 Amino Acids and Peptides - Core Points
Amino acids and peptides:
General structure (only primary structure for peptides) and
physical properties.
------------
amino acids are organic compounds containing both an amino group (NH2) and carboxylic group (COOH). They are represented by the general formula:
R
|
C-COOH
|
NH2
amino acids contain an amino group attached to alpha carbon of a carboxylic acid.
Amino acids are the basic units of proteins.
There are twenty amino acids commonly found in proteins.
Except Glycine all other amino acids contain asymmetric carbon atom next to the carboxylic acid.
Peptide linkage: The condensation of two amino acids with the eliminatin of H2O (H from NH2 and OH from the acid side produces CO-NH linkage, which in protein chemistry is known as peptide linkage.
General structure (only primary structure for peptides) and
physical properties.
------------
amino acids are organic compounds containing both an amino group (NH2) and carboxylic group (COOH). They are represented by the general formula:
R
|
C-COOH
|
NH2
amino acids contain an amino group attached to alpha carbon of a carboxylic acid.
Amino acids are the basic units of proteins.
There are twenty amino acids commonly found in proteins.
Except Glycine all other amino acids contain asymmetric carbon atom next to the carboxylic acid.
Peptide linkage: The condensation of two amino acids with the eliminatin of H2O (H from NH2 and OH from the acid side produces CO-NH linkage, which in protein chemistry is known as peptide linkage.
Ch.33 Polymers - Core Points
JEE syllabus
Properties and uses of some important polymers:
Natural rubber,
cellulose,
nylon,
teflon and
PVC.
Objective 10 points
A polymer is a large molecule built by repetitive binding together of many small units called monomers.
Homopolymer: A polymer derived from a single repeating monomer. Only one type of monomer will have repetitive binding and a large molecule appears.
Copolymer: When two or more monomer bind together in a repetitive manner and give rise to a large polymer, it is called copolymer.
Chain growth polymers: Also called addition polymers.
Step Growth polymerss: Also called as condensation polymers
Classification based on physical properties: Elastomers, Fibre, Thermoplastics and
Thermosetting plastics
Rubber is a naturally occuring polymer of isoprene (2-methyl buta-1,3-diene)
Natural rubber is a thermoplastic and becomes soft and sticky when heated.The properties can be modified and improved by the process of vulcanization.
cellulose
Nylon: The monomer of nylon 6 is caprolactum and for nylon 66, the monomers are hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid.
Teflon: It is an addition polymer of tetrafluoroethylene (nF2C=CF2).Under heat and pressure the double bond breaks and gets ready for bonding with a carbon on either side and the polymerisation takes place. (-F2C-CF2-)n
PVC: PVC is polyvinyl chloride and its monomer is vinyl chloride. CH2=CHCl
Properties and uses of some important polymers:
Natural rubber,
cellulose,
nylon,
teflon and
PVC.
Objective 10 points
A polymer is a large molecule built by repetitive binding together of many small units called monomers.
Homopolymer: A polymer derived from a single repeating monomer. Only one type of monomer will have repetitive binding and a large molecule appears.
Copolymer: When two or more monomer bind together in a repetitive manner and give rise to a large polymer, it is called copolymer.
Chain growth polymers: Also called addition polymers.
Step Growth polymerss: Also called as condensation polymers
Classification based on physical properties: Elastomers, Fibre, Thermoplastics and
Thermosetting plastics
Rubber is a naturally occuring polymer of isoprene (2-methyl buta-1,3-diene)
Natural rubber is a thermoplastic and becomes soft and sticky when heated.The properties can be modified and improved by the process of vulcanization.
cellulose
Nylon: The monomer of nylon 6 is caprolactum and for nylon 66, the monomers are hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid.
Teflon: It is an addition polymer of tetrafluoroethylene (nF2C=CF2).Under heat and pressure the double bond breaks and gets ready for bonding with a carbon on either side and the polymerisation takes place. (-F2C-CF2-)n
PVC: PVC is polyvinyl chloride and its monomer is vinyl chloride. CH2=CHCl
Ch 34 Practical Organic Chemistry - Core Points
Practical organic chemistry:
Detection of elements (N, S, halogens);
Detection and identification of the following functional groups:
hydroxyl (alcoholic and phenolic),
carbonyl (aldehyde and ketone),
carboxyl, amino and nitro;
Chemical methods of separation of mono-functional organic compounds from binary mixtures.
---------------
The objective is to write 10 points
1.Lassaigne test is used for detecting N,S, halogens.
2.Sodium extract of the given compound is prepared first to do Lassaigne test.
3.Ferrous sulphate is used for nitrogen detection, acetic acid and lead acetate for detecting sulphur and NH4OH is used for detecting halogens.
4. Sodium test is used for detecting OH group
5. Ferric chloride test is used detecting phenolic group.
6. 2,4 dinitrophenylhydrazine test used to find the presence of carbonyl group.
7. Tollens reagent test is used for detecting aldehydic group.
8. If a carbonyl group is present, but aldehydic group is not detected, it means ketonic group is there.
9. Bicarbonate test will indicte carboxylic group -COOH
10. Isocyanide test will indicate presence of amine -NH2 group.
Detection of elements (N, S, halogens);
Detection and identification of the following functional groups:
hydroxyl (alcoholic and phenolic),
carbonyl (aldehyde and ketone),
carboxyl, amino and nitro;
Chemical methods of separation of mono-functional organic compounds from binary mixtures.
---------------
The objective is to write 10 points
1.Lassaigne test is used for detecting N,S, halogens.
2.Sodium extract of the given compound is prepared first to do Lassaigne test.
3.Ferrous sulphate is used for nitrogen detection, acetic acid and lead acetate for detecting sulphur and NH4OH is used for detecting halogens.
4. Sodium test is used for detecting OH group
5. Ferric chloride test is used detecting phenolic group.
6. 2,4 dinitrophenylhydrazine test used to find the presence of carbonyl group.
7. Tollens reagent test is used for detecting aldehydic group.
8. If a carbonyl group is present, but aldehydic group is not detected, it means ketonic group is there.
9. Bicarbonate test will indicte carboxylic group -COOH
10. Isocyanide test will indicate presence of amine -NH2 group.
Tuesday, January 15, 2008
Some More Tips for JEE 2008 Candidates
Mr. Rajiv Srivastava in his blog post http://www.eblogs.in/rajiv-srivastava/how-to-get-in-iits
gave the following tips (I modified them slightly).
1. Select 60% of course in each subject and prepare them well.
2. Try to solve Olympiad problems.
3. Only follow one or two books in each subjects.
4. In examination you need to solve only 50% questions correctly.
5. Try to solve easy questions first.
6. For initial 5 minutes you go through complete paper, and select the questions which are comparatively easy.
7. Try to have strong fundamentals. Tricks and shortcuts always dont work, but still they can be helpful.
8. Solve previous year papers, for confidence but question will not be repeated in the examinations.
These suggestions are good. The first suggestion has to be interpreted that while you need to have a good understanding of every topic in the syllabus, develop a very good understanding of 60% of the portion at least.
Try past examination papers including olympiads to develop the confidence that you solve them in the JEE examination. Don't get frustrated after seeing the JEE paper. First identify easy questions and answer them. You may clear the JEE even if you can answer 50% correctly (based on past experience). So don't give up. You could answer past question paper. You can answer this question paper. Keep your confidence with you till the last minute. Stretch your brain coolly. You will answer the paper. Your effort will reward you.
gave the following tips (I modified them slightly).
1. Select 60% of course in each subject and prepare them well.
2. Try to solve Olympiad problems.
3. Only follow one or two books in each subjects.
4. In examination you need to solve only 50% questions correctly.
5. Try to solve easy questions first.
6. For initial 5 minutes you go through complete paper, and select the questions which are comparatively easy.
7. Try to have strong fundamentals. Tricks and shortcuts always dont work, but still they can be helpful.
8. Solve previous year papers, for confidence but question will not be repeated in the examinations.
These suggestions are good. The first suggestion has to be interpreted that while you need to have a good understanding of every topic in the syllabus, develop a very good understanding of 60% of the portion at least.
Try past examination papers including olympiads to develop the confidence that you solve them in the JEE examination. Don't get frustrated after seeing the JEE paper. First identify easy questions and answer them. You may clear the JEE even if you can answer 50% correctly (based on past experience). So don't give up. You could answer past question paper. You can answer this question paper. Keep your confidence with you till the last minute. Stretch your brain coolly. You will answer the paper. Your effort will reward you.
Thursday, January 10, 2008
Vision Kota JEE Model Paper
I liked the positive attitudes indicated by Vision Kota
Positive Attitudes for IIT JEE success
Curiosity.
You should feel a need to know things—all kinds of things— just to know them. Knowledge does not require a reason. The question, “Why do you want to know that?” seems strange to you, but you should say, “Because I don’t know the answer.” Knowledge is enjoyable and often useful in strange and unexpected ways.
A wide ranging knowledge is necessary for you to really give IIT JEE a good attempt. Much knowledge arises from variations of a known or combinations of two known things and the best ideas flow from a well equipped mind. Nothing can come from nothing.
A belief that most problems can be solved.
By faith at first and by experience later on, you must believe that something can always be done to solve almost every problem. Problems are solved by a commitment of time and energy, and where this commitment is present, nothing is impossible.
The belief in the solvability of problems is especially useful early in solving any problem, because many problems have a covered deceptive face and may scare you. Analyze the Problem, Break it into simple components and then attempt. The result is a wonderful perfect solution you are looking for. Those who face the problem with confidence will be the ones most likely to think through or around the problem and reach at the core of solution.
Problems are interesting and emotionally acceptable.
You must see problems as interesting challenges worth tackling. Problems are not fearful beasts to be feared or loathed; they are worthy opponents to be jousted out and unhorsed. Problem solving is fun, educational, rewarding, ego building, helpful to you.
Perseverance.
Most students fail because they spend only limited time on a problem that requires more time to solve. You must be committed for hard work and put in laborious efforts in terms of time and energy. There is no quick and easy secret. You need knowledge gained by study and problem solving and you must put your knowledge to work by hard thinking.
http://www.vision2000kota.com/SuccessGuide.htm
YOu can download a model paper from
http://www.vision2000kota.com/VisionKotaHome.asp
The key to the question paper is also there.
Positive Attitudes for IIT JEE success
Curiosity.
You should feel a need to know things—all kinds of things— just to know them. Knowledge does not require a reason. The question, “Why do you want to know that?” seems strange to you, but you should say, “Because I don’t know the answer.” Knowledge is enjoyable and often useful in strange and unexpected ways.
A wide ranging knowledge is necessary for you to really give IIT JEE a good attempt. Much knowledge arises from variations of a known or combinations of two known things and the best ideas flow from a well equipped mind. Nothing can come from nothing.
A belief that most problems can be solved.
By faith at first and by experience later on, you must believe that something can always be done to solve almost every problem. Problems are solved by a commitment of time and energy, and where this commitment is present, nothing is impossible.
The belief in the solvability of problems is especially useful early in solving any problem, because many problems have a covered deceptive face and may scare you. Analyze the Problem, Break it into simple components and then attempt. The result is a wonderful perfect solution you are looking for. Those who face the problem with confidence will be the ones most likely to think through or around the problem and reach at the core of solution.
Problems are interesting and emotionally acceptable.
You must see problems as interesting challenges worth tackling. Problems are not fearful beasts to be feared or loathed; they are worthy opponents to be jousted out and unhorsed. Problem solving is fun, educational, rewarding, ego building, helpful to you.
Perseverance.
Most students fail because they spend only limited time on a problem that requires more time to solve. You must be committed for hard work and put in laborious efforts in terms of time and energy. There is no quick and easy secret. You need knowledge gained by study and problem solving and you must put your knowledge to work by hard thinking.
http://www.vision2000kota.com/SuccessGuide.htm
YOu can download a model paper from
http://www.vision2000kota.com/VisionKotaHome.asp
The key to the question paper is also there.
Wednesday, January 9, 2008
Good website for some topics
http://www.drbateman.net/asa2chem.htm
Atomic Structure
http://www.drbateman.net/asa2sums/sum1.1/sum1.1.htm
Chemical equilibria I
http://www.drbateman.net/asa2sums/sum2.4/sum2.4.htm
Summary of Topic 5.2: Transition metal chemistry
http://www.drbateman.net/asa2sums/sum5.2/sum5.2.htm
http://www.drbateman.net/asa2sums/sum5.3/sum5.3.htm
Atomic Structure
http://www.drbateman.net/asa2sums/sum1.1/sum1.1.htm
Chemical equilibria I
http://www.drbateman.net/asa2sums/sum2.4/sum2.4.htm
Summary of Topic 5.2: Transition metal chemistry
http://www.drbateman.net/asa2sums/sum5.2/sum5.2.htm
http://www.drbateman.net/asa2sums/sum5.3/sum5.3.htm
Tuesday, January 8, 2008
Organic Chemistry New Book by TMH for JEE
Organic Chemistry
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PREM DHAWAN, Delhi Public School, R K Puram, Delhi
ISBN: 0070655448
Copyright year: 2008
Table of Contents
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. General Organic Chemistry - I
2. General Organic Chemistry - II
3. Purification and Characterisation of Organic Compounds
4. Hydrocarbons (Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Benzene)
5. Organic Compounds Containing Halogen
6. Organic Compounds Containing Hydroxy Group (Alcohols, Phenols, Diols, Triols)
7. Ethers, Aldehyde and Ketones
8. Carboxylic Acids and its Derivatives
9. Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen (Cyanides, Isocyanides, Nitro and Amines)
10. Polymers
11. Biomolecules
Book Preface
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The objective of this book is to make the study of organic chemistry interesting and enjoyable. Apart from a thorough grounding in the fundamental concepts, emphasis is also on enhancing your ability to solve problems and to use relationships between concepts and information that would strengthen your mastery of the subject.
The book is also tailored to meet the requirements of classes XI and XII students and also those appearing in IIT-JEE entrance and similar engineering entrance examinations.
There are many examples given and each topic ends with a practice test along with their solutions. A large number of exercises are given at the end of each chapter. Written in a simple and systematic manner, the books' highlights are as follows:
A large number of examples to supplement the text
Practice test at the end of each topic
Large number of chapter-end exercises
Solution Manual
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0070655448/student_view0/solution_manual.html
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PREM DHAWAN, Delhi Public School, R K Puram, Delhi
ISBN: 0070655448
Copyright year: 2008
Table of Contents
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. General Organic Chemistry - I
2. General Organic Chemistry - II
3. Purification and Characterisation of Organic Compounds
4. Hydrocarbons (Alkanes, Alkenes, Alkynes, Benzene)
5. Organic Compounds Containing Halogen
6. Organic Compounds Containing Hydroxy Group (Alcohols, Phenols, Diols, Triols)
7. Ethers, Aldehyde and Ketones
8. Carboxylic Acids and its Derivatives
9. Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen (Cyanides, Isocyanides, Nitro and Amines)
10. Polymers
11. Biomolecules
Book Preface
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The objective of this book is to make the study of organic chemistry interesting and enjoyable. Apart from a thorough grounding in the fundamental concepts, emphasis is also on enhancing your ability to solve problems and to use relationships between concepts and information that would strengthen your mastery of the subject.
The book is also tailored to meet the requirements of classes XI and XII students and also those appearing in IIT-JEE entrance and similar engineering entrance examinations.
There are many examples given and each topic ends with a practice test along with their solutions. A large number of exercises are given at the end of each chapter. Written in a simple and systematic manner, the books' highlights are as follows:
A large number of examples to supplement the text
Practice test at the end of each topic
Large number of chapter-end exercises
Solution Manual
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0070655448/student_view0/solution_manual.html
New Book for Physical Chemistry IIT JEE
TMH published a new book
Physical Chemistry : For IIT JEE & other Engineering Entrance Examinations
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PREM DHAWAN, Delhi Public School, R K Puram, Delhi
ISBN: 0070655461
Copyright year: 2008
Table of Contents
1. Stoichiometry - I
2. Gaseous State
3. Atomic Structure
4. Oeriodic Properties
5. Chemical Bonding
6. Chemical Thermodynamics
7. Chemical Kinetics
8. Chemical Equilibrium
9. Ionic Equilibrium
10. Stoichiometry - II: Redox Reaction and Oxidation Numbers
11. Solutions
12. Electrochemistry
13. The Solid State
14. Surface Chemistry
Book Preface
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The objective of this book is to make the study of physical chemistry systematic and enjoyable. Apart from a thorough grounding in the fundamental concepts, emphasis is also on enhancing your ability to solve problems and to use relationships between concepts and information that would strengthen your mastery of the subject.
The book is tailored to meet the requirements of those appearing in IIT-JEE entrance and similar engineering entrance examinations and also classes XI & XII students.
As you begin reading this book, you will soon see that there are many examples given and each topic ends with a practice test along with their solutions. A large number of exercises are given at the end of each chapter. Written in a simple and systematic manner, the books' highlights are as follows:
A large number of examples to supplement the text
Practice test at the end of each topic
Large number of chapter-end exercises divided into
(i) Subjective Problems (ii) Multiple choice questions with one answer correct (iii) Multiple choice questions with multiple correct answers (iv) Fill in the blanks, True/False questions, Match the following (v) A special section on comprehension-based questions.
With such an exhaustive coverage of the topic, I am sure that students would find the book an ideal companion to understand and master the subject.
You can download solution manual of the book from
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0070655461/student_view0/solution_manual.html
Physical Chemistry : For IIT JEE & other Engineering Entrance Examinations
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PREM DHAWAN, Delhi Public School, R K Puram, Delhi
ISBN: 0070655461
Copyright year: 2008
Table of Contents
1. Stoichiometry - I
2. Gaseous State
3. Atomic Structure
4. Oeriodic Properties
5. Chemical Bonding
6. Chemical Thermodynamics
7. Chemical Kinetics
8. Chemical Equilibrium
9. Ionic Equilibrium
10. Stoichiometry - II: Redox Reaction and Oxidation Numbers
11. Solutions
12. Electrochemistry
13. The Solid State
14. Surface Chemistry
Book Preface
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The objective of this book is to make the study of physical chemistry systematic and enjoyable. Apart from a thorough grounding in the fundamental concepts, emphasis is also on enhancing your ability to solve problems and to use relationships between concepts and information that would strengthen your mastery of the subject.
The book is tailored to meet the requirements of those appearing in IIT-JEE entrance and similar engineering entrance examinations and also classes XI & XII students.
As you begin reading this book, you will soon see that there are many examples given and each topic ends with a practice test along with their solutions. A large number of exercises are given at the end of each chapter. Written in a simple and systematic manner, the books' highlights are as follows:
A large number of examples to supplement the text
Practice test at the end of each topic
Large number of chapter-end exercises divided into
(i) Subjective Problems (ii) Multiple choice questions with one answer correct (iii) Multiple choice questions with multiple correct answers (iv) Fill in the blanks, True/False questions, Match the following (v) A special section on comprehension-based questions.
With such an exhaustive coverage of the topic, I am sure that students would find the book an ideal companion to understand and master the subject.
You can download solution manual of the book from
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0070655461/student_view0/solution_manual.html
Thursday, January 3, 2008
Chemistry book for download
12 Chemistry book by tamilnadu in English
http://www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in/Std12.htm
11th
http://www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in/Std11.htm
http://www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in/Std12.htm
11th
http://www.textbooksonline.tn.nic.in/Std11.htm
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)