Ch.15 Hydrocarbons Core Revision Points

15.1 Classification of Hydrocarbons
15.2 Alkanes
Alkanes are classified as open chain or acyclic alkanes and cyclic or cycloalkanes.

15.3 Nomenclature of Alkanes
15.4 Conformations in Hydrocarbons
Conformations are the different arrangements in a molecule which can be obtained due to rotation around carbon-carbon single bond.
Staggered conformations of ethane and propane are more stable than their eclipsed conformations.
The stability of different conformations of butane is:
anti > skew > eclipsed > fully eclipsed  (gt greater than)

15.5 Preparation and Properties of Alkanes

Chemistry of Alkenes
15.6 Nomenclature of Alkenes
15.7 Isomerism in Alkenes
15.8 Stability of of Alkenes
15.9

Chemistry of Alkynes


15.10 Isomerism in Alkynes
15.11 Preparation and Properties of Alkynes

Chemistry of Alkadienes

15.12 Dienes
Dienes are compound containing two double bonds in their molecules.

dienes are of three types: conjugated dienes, isolated dienes, allenes
Conjugated dienes undergo 1,2- and 1,4- addition reactions.

15.13 Stability of Conjugated Dienes
15.14 Delocalization of Electrons
15.15 Electrophilic addition to Conjugated Dienes

Chemistry of Aromatic Hydrocarbons

15.16 Arenes or Aromatic Hydrocarbons
15.17 Nomenclature
15.18 Stability and Structure of Benzene
15.19 Isomerism in Arenes
15.20 Aromaticity (Huckel Rule)
15.21 Sources of Aromatic Hydrocarbons
15.22 Preparation of Benzene and Its Homologues
15.23 Properties of Benzene and Its Homologues

15.24 Mechanism of Electrophilic Substitution Reactions of Benzene
Benzene undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions.

15.25 Directive Influence of Substituents and Their Effect on reactivity
15.26 Polynuclear Hydrocarbons

Chemistry of Petroleum and Petrochemicals

15.27 Petroleum and Composition of Crude Oil
15.28 Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil
15.29 Quality of Gasoline – Octane Number
15.30 LPG and CNG
15.31 Cracking and Reforming
15.32 Petrochemicals

JEE Main Class XI Chemistry Chapters Revision Points - S.P. Jauhar Book

1. Some basic concepts of chemistry

Core Revision Points

Notes

2. States of Matter

Core Revision Points

Notes

3. Atomic Structure

Core Revision Points

Notes

4. Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Core Revision Points

5. First Law of Thermodynamics and Chemical Energetics

Core Revision Points

Notes

6. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Core Revision Points

Notes

7. Equilibrium I – Equilibrium Process and Phase Equilibria

Core Revision Points

Notes

8. Equilibrium II – Ionic Equilibrium in Solutions

Core Revision Points

Notes

9. Redox Reactions

Core Revision Points

Notes

10. Principles and Processes of Extraction of Elements

Core Revision Points

Notes

11. Hydrogen

Core Revision Points


12. s-Block Elements

Core Revision Points

Notes

13. Some p-Block Elements

Core Revision Points

Notes

14. Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles

Core Revision Points

15. Hydrocarbons

Core Revision Points

Alkanes - Revision Notes

Alkenes

Alkynes

Aromatics - Benzene

16. Purification and Characterisation of Organic Compounds

Core Revision Points

17. Organic Compounds with Functional Groups Containing Halogens

Core Revision Points

Alkyl halides

18. Environmental Pollution

Core Revision Points

JEE Main Class XII Chemistry Chapters Revision Points - S.P. Jauhar Book

1. Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding

Core Revision Points

2. Solid State

Core Revision Points

3. Solutions

Core Revision Points

4. Chemical Thermodynamics

Core Revision Points

5. Electrochemistry
Electrochemistry - Core Revision Points

6. Chemical Kinetics

Core Revision Points

7. Surface Chemistry
Core Revision Points

8. p-Block Elements

Core Revision Points

9. d and f -Block Elements

Core Revision Points

10. Co-ordination Compounds and Organometallics

Core Revision Points

11. Nuclear Chemistry

Core Revision Points

12. Stereochemistry

Core Revision Points

13. Organic Compounds with functional Groups Containing Oxygen - I (Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers)

Core Revision Points

14. Organic Compounds with functional Groups Containing Oxygen – II (Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives)

Core Revision Points

15. Organic Compounds with functional Groups Containing Nitrogen (Nitro, Amino, Cyano and Diazo Compounds)

Core Revision Points

16. Polymers

Core Revision Points

17. Biomolecules

Core Revision Points

18. Chemistry in Everyday Life

Core Revision Points

JEE Main - Core Points for Revision - Ch. 8. Equilibrium II – Ionic Equilibrium in Solutions

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.


8.1 Acid-base Concepts

Acids and bases definitions (Arrhenius, Bronsted and Lewis)

Arrhenius defined acid as a hydrogen compound which in water solution give hydrogen ions.
He defined base as a hydroxide compound which in water solution gives hydroxide ions.


Lowry and Bronsted
An acid is defined as a substance having a tendency of lose or to donate one or more protons.
A base is defined as a substance having a tendency to accept or add a proton


Lewis Theory of Acids and Bases

Acid: An acid is any substance (molecule, ion or atom) that can accept a lone pair of electrons to form a coordinate bond (*Remember coordinate bond and lone pair topics in chapter on Bonding)

Base: Base is any species (molecule, ion or atom) that can donate a lone pair of electrons to form a co-ordinate bond.

8.2 Acid- base Equilibria and Ionization of Acids and Bases

8.3 Ionization of Water – Ionic Product of Water

Ionic Product of Water

The Ionic Product of Water, Kw, is the equilibrium constant for the reaction in which water undergoes an acid-base reaction with itself. That is, water is behaving simultaneously as both an acid and a base.

H2O(l) + H2O(l) = H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)

Kw = [H3O+(aq)][OH-(aq)]

At 298 K, the value of Kw is 1 x 10-14 mol^2 dm^-6. This makes the concentration of H+ ions equal to 1 x 10-7 mol dm^-3, and therefore the pH is 7. This is defined as 'neutral'.

From the above equilibrium expression, taking -log10 throughout

pKw = pH + pOH = 14

Ionic Product does not apply only to water. It applies, for example, to the equilibrium in liquid ammonia:

NH3 + NH3 = NH2- + NH4+

8.4 Expressing Hydrogen Ion Concentration – pH Scale

pH

pH is related to hydrogen ion concentration. Since the H+ ion concentration in solution is often small, the concentration is generally expressed as the logarithm of its reciprocal, which is called a pH value. Therefore, pH is defined as

pH = -log[H+]

For a ten times increase in H+ ion concentration there is a decrease in the pH value of one unit.

Given the pH of a solution, its H+ concentration can be found:

[H+(aq)] = antilog -pH


or

[H+(aq)] = 10^-pH



8.5 Polyprotic Acids and Bases

8.6 Hydrolysis of Salts
Hydrolysis is the name for a substance chemically reacting with water.

Hydrolysis should be distinguished from solvation, which is the process of water molecules associating themselves with individual solute molecules or ions.

When a chemical reaction comes to equilibrium, there is a mixture of all involved substances in the reaction vessel. This mixture is characterized by a constant composition. (constant composition DOES NOT imply equal composition.)

The key point that makes a reaction come to equilibrium is that it is reversible. This means that both the forward reaction and the reverse reaction can happen,
The reaction comes to equilibrium when the rates of the two reactions (forward and reverse) become equal.
More details  https://iit-jee-chemistry.blogspot.com/2008/02/jee-revision-hydrolysis-of-salts.html

8.7 Acid base Titrations and Indicators

8.8 Solubility Product

Solubility product of a salt at a given temperature is equal to the product of the concentrations of its ions in the saturated solution, with each concentration term raised to the power equal to the number of moles of ions produced on dissociation of one mole of the substance.

More details https://iit-jee-chemistry.blogspot.com/2008/02/solubility-product.html

8.9 Buffer Solution






Sections in the Chapter

8.1 Acid-base Concepts
8.2 Acid- base Equilibria and Ionization of Acids and Bases
8.3 Ionization of Water – Ionic Product of Water
8.4 Expressing Hydrogen Ion Concentration – pH Scale
8.5 Polyprotic Acids and Bases
8.6 Hydrolysis of Salts
8.7 Acid base Titrations and Indicators
8.8 Solubility Product
8.9 Buffer Solution


Updated on 2 January 2020
21 May 2015

JEE Main - Core Points for Revision - 7. Equilibrium I – Equilibrium Process and Phase Equilibria

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.






7.1 Equilibrium and Its dynamic nature


In most of the reaction carried out in closed vessels, reaction does not go to completion under given set of conditions of temperature and pressure. Initially, in the vessel, only reactants are present, and as the reaction proceeds, the concetration of reactants will decrease and that of products will increase.

After some time a stage is reached when no further change in concetrations of reactants and products is observed. This state is called equilibrium state and some of the important questions regarding this phenomenon are:

1. why do reactions seem to stop before they reach completion?
2. What is the extent to which a reaction proceed?
3. Can we modify the conditions to improve the yield of products?

Equilibrium - The phenomenon

Equilibrium is the state at which the concentrations of reactants and products do not change with time.

It is important to remember that equilibrium is achieved in closed vessel reactions only.

The important aspect of reaction equilibrium is the reversibility. The products combine and form reactants. At equilibrium, both the forward and backward reactions are taking place. The rates of forward and backward reactions are same or equal at the equilibrium. As a result, the concentration of each species becomes constant.

The equilibrium is termed as dynamic reaction equilibrium. Dynamic means at a microscopic level, the system is in motion. But at macroscopic level, concentrations are not changing.


Chemical reactions may be classified as reversible reactions and irreversible reactions.

Example of irrereversible reaction

Decomposition of potassium chlorate into potassium chloride and oxygen. Even in a closed vessel this reaction is not reversible.

Example of reversible reaction

1. Decompositon of calcium carbonate. When solid calcium carbonate is heated in a closed vessel at 1073 K, it decomposes into solid calcium oxide and gaseous carbon dioxide. Due to gaseous CO2 there is pressure of gas in the vessel which can be measured. At a constant temperature it can be observed that pressure becomes constant after some time, which means no further CO2 is being produced even though calcium carbonate is still there in the vessel. The constant pressure indicates to us that reaction equilibrium is reached.

Characteristics of chemical equilibrium

1. Chemical equilibrium is dynamic in nature (already explained).

2.The properties of the system become constant at equilibrium and remain unchanged thereafter unless external or internal conditions are changed.

3. The equilibrium is attained only if the system is closed one.

4. As the reactions are reversible and happen under the same conditions, equilibrium can be attained from either direction.

5. A catalyst does not alter the equilibrium point. The catalyst increases the rate of reaction, and at equilibrium it increases both forward and backward reaction rates. But it does not alter equilibrium point, the concentrations of products and reactants at a given set of conditions. But the equilibrium is reached earlier in the presence of a catalyst.

7.2 Equilibrium in Physical Processes

7.3 Equilibria involving Chemical Systems

7.4 Law of Chemical equilibrium and equilibrium Constant


There are reactions where one can see the reverse action also to be active and see the equilibrium point. In this case

A + B → C + D and

C+D → A+B both reactions keep taking place.

At the point of equilibrium the rate of both reactions is same. Formation of A+B is equal to consumption of A+B.



Rate of forward reaction = k-f[A][B]

Rate of reverse reaction or backward reaction = k-r[C][D]

Therefore k-f[A][B] = k-r[C]{D]

This gives k-f/k-r = [C]{D]/[A][B]

The equilibrium constant is always written as products by reactants.

For the a general reaction

aA + bB ↔ cC+dD (Normal two arrows are used for reversible reaction. Only one arrow with heads on both sides is used here to tide over the inability to show two arrows.)

k-eq = [C]^c[D]^d/[A]^a[B]^b

The equilibrium constant may or may not have units.

In the case of 2A ↔ 2B +C

The units of equilibrium constant are going to be: (mol/l)^2(mol/l)/(mol/l)^2

= mol/l

7.5 Types of Chemical Equilibria
7.6 Applications of Equilibrium Constant
7.7 Factors Which change the State of Equilibrium – Le Chatelier’s Principle
7.8 Applications of Le Chatelier’s Principle of Physical Equilibrium



Contents

7.1 Equilibrium and Its dynamic nature
7.2 Equilibrium in Physical Processes
7.3 Equilibria involving Chemical Systems
7.4 Law of Chemical equilibrium and equilibrium Constant
7.5 Types of Chemical Equilibria
7.6 Applications of Equilibrium Constant
7.7 Factors Which change the State of Equilibrium – Le Chatelier’s Principle
7.8 Applications of Le Chatelier’s Principle of Physical Equilibrium



21 May 2015

JEE Main - Chapters - Modern Chemistry for Class XI by Dr. S.P. Jauhar

1. Some basic concepts of chemistry

Study Guide - 15 Days

Core Revision Points

Notes

2. States of Matter

Study Guide - 13 Days

Core Revision Points

Notes

3. Atomic Structure

Study Guide - 12 Days

Core Revision Points

Notes

4. Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

5. First Law of Thermodynamics and Chemical Energetics

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

Notes

6. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

Notes

7. Equilibrium I – Equilibrium Process and Phase Equilibria

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

Notes

8. Equilibrium II – Ionic Equilibrium in Solutions

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

Notes

9. Redox Reactions

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

Notes

10. Principles and Processes of Extraction of Elements

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

Notes

11. Hydrogen

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

12. s-Block Elements

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

Notes

13. Some p-Block Elements

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

Notes

14. Organic Chemistry: Some Basic Principles

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

15. Hydrocarbons

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

Alkanes - Revision Notes

Alkenes

Alkynes

Aromatics - Benzene

16. Purification and Characterisation of Organic Compounds

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

17. Organic Compounds with Functional Groups Containing Halogens

Study Guide

Core Revision Points

Alkyl halides

18. Environmental Pollution

Study Guide

Core Revision Points



Updated 24 May 2015
First posted 20 Dec 2014

JEE Main - Chapters - Modern Chemistry for Class XII by Dr. S.P. Jauhar

1. Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding

Study Plan  - May  - 15 days   1 to 15 May

Core Revision Points

2. Solid State

Study Plan - May - 10 Days   16 to 25 May

Core Revision Points

3. Solutions

Study Plan  15 Days   26 May to 30 May - 1 June to 10 June

Core Revision Points

4. Chemical Thermodynamics

Study Plan -  15 Days  June  11 to 25

Core Revision Points

5. Electrochemistry

Study Plan  -  15 Days June  26 to 30, July 1 to 10

Electrochemistry - Core Revision Points

6. Chemical Kinetics

Study Plan - 15 Days  July 11 to 25

Core Revision Points

7. Surface Chemistry

Study Plan - 10 days  July 25 to 30, 1 to 5 August

Core Revision Points

8. p-Block Elements

Study Plan - 15 days  6 to 20 August

Core Revision Points

9. d and f -Block Elements

Study Plan - 10 Days  21 to 30 August

Core Revision Points

10. Co-ordination Compounds and Organometallics

Study Plan - 10 Days   1 to 10 September

Core Revision Points

11. Nuclear Chemistry

Study Plan - 15 Days   11 to 25 September

Core Revision Points

A Preview of Organic Chemistry  - 9 Days of slack time is there in the year.

Study Plan

Core Revision Points

12. Stereochemistry

Study Plan - 11 Days  26 to 30 September   1 to 6 October

Core Revision Points

13. Organic Compounds with functional Groups Containing Oxygen - I (Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers)

Study Plan - 15 Days  - 7 to 21 Ocotber

Core Revision Points

14. Organic Compounds with functional Groups Containing Oxygen – II (Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives)

Study Plan - 15 Days - 22 to 30 October,  1 to 6 November

Core Revision Points

15. Organic Compounds with functional Groups Containing Nitrogen (Nitro, Amino, Cyano and Diazo Compounds)

Study Plan - 15 Days  - 7 to 21 November

Core Revision Points

16. Polymers

Study Plan - 10 Days  - 22 to 30 November, 1 December

Core Revision Points

17. Biomolecules

Study Plan - 10 Days  - 2 to 11 December

Core Revision Points

18. Chemistry in Everyday Life

Study Plan - 10 Days  - 12 to 21 December

Core Revision Points




Updated 23 May 2015
First published on 20 Dec 2014

13. Some p-Block Elements - JEE Main - Core Points for Revision

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.


Sections in the Chapter

Elements Covered: Boron, Nitrogen, Carbon, Oxygen

Chemistry of Boron and Its compounds
13.1 Boron
13.2 Compounds of Boron

Chemistry of Carbon and its Compounds
13.3 Carbon
13.4 Compounds of Carbon

Chemistry of Nitrogen and its Compounds
13.5 Nitrogen
13.6 Compounds of Nitrogen

Chemistry of Oxygen and its Compounds
13.7 Oxygen
13.8 Simple Oxides
13.9 Ozone




Revision Points in the Chapter

Chemistry of Boron and Its compounds
13.1 Boron
13.2 Compounds of Boron

• Diborane (B2H6) is electron deficient compound.
• B3N3H6 os called inorganic benzene
• Boron halide acts as Lewis acid.
• Boric acid has BO3 (3-) ions.

Chemistry of Carbon and its Compounds
13.3 Carbon
13.4 Compounds of Carbon

• Allotropes are the different forms of the same element having different physical properties but almost similar chemical properties.
• In diamond, carbon undergoes sp3 hybridization while in graphite carbon undergoes sp2 hybridization.  
• Fullerenes are allotropes of Carbon.
• C60 is Buckminister fullerene. It is popularly called bucky ball.

Chemistry of Nitrogen and its Compounds
13.5 Nitrogen
13.6 Compounds of Nitrogen

• Calcium cyanamide is used as a fertilizer.
• N20 is called laughing gas.
• Brown ring test for nitrates.
• HN3 is called hydrazoic acid.
• HNO3 attacks proteins giving a yellow nitro compound called xantho protein.

Chemistry of Oxygen and its Compounds
13.7 Oxygen
13.8 Simple Oxides
13.9 Ozone

1. Liquid oxygen is used as rocket fuel.
2. Ozone is an allotropic form of oxygen.
3. On moving from left to right in a given period, the nature of oxide changes from basic to amphoteric and then to acidic.
4. On moving down the group, acidic character of oxides decreases.
5. When mercury reacts with ozone, it loses its meniscus and starts sticking to the side of the glass. This is known as tailing of mercury.

Updated on 31 December 2019
21 May 2015

12. s-Block Elements - JEE Main - Core Points for Revision

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.

Core Revision Points in Sections in Jauhar's Book

12.1 Abundance and Occurrence
12.2 Anomalous Properties of First Element in Each Group
12.3 Diagonal Relationship

Chemistry of Alkali Metals

12.4 Occurrence
12.5 General Characteristics of Alkali Metals
Alkali metals are soft having low melting and boiling points. This is due to weak intermetallic bonding.


12.6 General Characteristics of Compounds of Alkali Metals
12.7 Anomalous Behavior of Lithium
12.8 Diagonal Relationship

Chemistry of Li and Na and Its Compounds

12.9 Occurrence of Lithium and Sodium

Sodium metal is kept under kerosene because it is very reactive and if exposed to air,  it reacts with oxygen and carbon dioxide.
12.10 Extraction of Lithium and Sodium
12.11 Some Important Compounds of Sodium

LiCl is covalent in nature due high polarising power of Li+. Being covalent in nature, it is soluble in organic solvent.

LiH is more stable than NaH as LiH has more lattice energy.

Chemistry of Alkaline Earth Metals

12.12 Occurrence
12.13 General Characteristics of Alkaline Earth Metals
12.14 General Characteristics of Compounds of Alkaline Earth Metals
12.15 Differences between Beryllium and Magnesium
12.16 Diagonal Similarities of Beryllium and Aluminium

12.17 Occurrence of Magnesium
Magnesium - Chemistry

12.18 Compounds of Magnesium and Calcium

Compounds of Magnesium

Compounds of  Calcium

CaO is quick lime. On adding water to it, calcium hydroxide is formed. This process is called slaking of lime.

Plaster of paris is CaSo4.1/2 H2O. On mixing with water, it forms a plastic mass which sets inot hard solid mass (gypsum). This change is called setting of plaster of paris.


12.19 Industrial Uses of Limestone and Lime


12.20 Cement
Cement is called portland cement because it resembles with the famous building stone found near Portland in England.

Cement was first introduced in England in 1824 by Joseph Aspidin.

Chemically, cement is a finely ground mixture of calcium silicates and aluminates which set to a hard mass when treated with water.



Practice problems

http://makoxmcqs.com/chemistry-mcqs-for-iit-jee-s-block-elements-mcq-practice-sheet/




Sections in Jauhar's Book

12.1 Abundance and Occurrence
12.2 Anomalous Properties of First Element in Each Group
12.3 Diagonal Relationship

Chemistry of Alkali Metals

12.4 Occurrence
12.5 General Characteristics of Alkali Metals
12.6 General Characteristics of Compounds of Alkali Metals
12.7 Anomalous Behavior of Lithium
12.8 Diagonal Relationship

Chemistry of Li and Na and Its Compounds

12.9 Occurrence of Lithium and Sodium

12.10 Extraction of Lithium and Sodium

12.11 Some Important Compounds of Sodium

Chemistry of Alkaline Earth Metals

12.12 Occurrence
12.13 General Characteristics of Alkaline Earth Metals
12.14 General Characteristics of Compounds of Alkaline Earth Metals
12.15 Differences between Beryllium and Magnesium
12.16 Diagonal Similarities of Beryllium and Aluminium


12.17 Occurrence of Magnesium


12.18 Compounds of Magnesium and Calcium

Compounds of Magnesium

Compounds of  Calcium
12.19 Industrial Uses of Limestone and Lime
12.20 Cement



Updated on 2 January 2020
21 May 2019

16. Polymers - JEE Main - Core Revision Points

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.

Sections in the chapter - Jauhar

16.1 Polymers
16.2 Classification of Polymers
16.3 General methods of Polymerisation
16.4 Mechanism of addition Polymerisation
16.5 Copolymers
16.6 Natural rubber
16.7 Condensation of Polymers
16.8 Molecular masses of Polymers
16.9 Biopolymers
16.10 Biodegradable Polymers
16.11 Some Commercially important Polymers

Sections in the chapter - Jauhar

16.1 Polymers
Difference Between a Metal and Polymer
16.2 Classification of Polymers

Polymers and Their Monomers
16.3 General methods of Polymerisation
16.4 Mechanism of addition Polymerisation
16.5 Copolymers
16.6 Natural rubber
16.7 Condensation of Polymers
16.8 Molecular masses of Polymers
16.9 Biopolymers
16.10 Biodegradable Polymers
16.11 Some Commercially important Polymers

Reversible Polymerization Reaction

14. Organic Compounds with functional Groups Containing Oxygen – II (Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives) - JEE Main - Core Revision Points

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.


Aldehydes contain carbonyl group C=O as functional group and the carbonyl carbon atom carries at least one H atom.

Ketones

In ketones, also carbonyl group C=O is the functional group. But the carbonyl carbon atom does not contain any H atoms, but it is attached to two alkyl or aryl groups.

Sections in the chapter

Part A: Aldehydes and Ketons

14A.1 Nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones
14.2 Isomerism in aldehydes and ketones
14.3 General methods of preparation of aldehydes and ketones
14.4 Physical properties of aldehydes and ketones
14.5 Chemical properties of aldehydes and ketones
P.P. 14A.13 to 14A.20
14.6 Commercially important carbonyl compounds
14.7 Distinction between properties of aldehydes and ketones
14.8 Distinction between some pairs (Chemical tests)



Carboxylic acids and their derivatives

14 B.1 Carboxylic acids and
14 B. 2 Nomenclature of Carboxylic acids
14 B. 3 Preparation of Carboxylic acids
P.P. 14 B.5 to 14B.8
14 B.4 Physical properties of Carboxylic acids
14 B.5 Chemical properties of Carboxylic acids
14 B.6 Some Commercially important Carboxylic acids
14 B.7 Distinction between alcohols, phenols and Carboxylic acids
14 B.8 Distinction between some pairs (Chemical tests)
P.P. 14B.9 to 14B.15

Functional derivatives of Carboxylic acids

14 B.9 Functional derivatives of Carboxylic acids
14 B. 10 Acyl halides
14 B. 11 Acid anhydrides
14 B. 12 Esters
14 B. 13 Acid Amides
14 B. 14 Some Commercially important compounds

Revision Points for Sections in the chapter

Aldehydes,  Ketons, Carboxylic acids and their derivatives

Part A: Aldehydes and Ketons

IIT JEE Revision -  Aldehydes and Ketones - Core Points

14A.1 Nomenclature of aldehydes and ketones
Aldehydes - Ketones - Introduction and Nomenclature

14.2 Isomerism in aldehydes and ketones
14.3 General methods of preparation of aldehydes and ketones
14.4 Physical properties of aldehydes and ketones
14.5 Chemical properties of aldehydes and ketones
14.6 Commercially important carbonyl compounds
14.7 Distinction between properties of aldehydes and ketones
14.8 Distinction between some pairs (Chemical tests)



Carboxylic acids and their derivatives

14 B.1 Carboxylic acids and
14 B. 2 Nomenclature of Carboxylic acids
14 B. 3 Preparation of Carboxylic acids
14 B.4 Physical properties of Carboxylic acids
14 B.5 Chemical properties of Carboxylic acids
14 B.6 Some Commercially important Carboxylic acids
14 B.7 Distinction between alcohols, phenols and Carboxylic acids
14 B.8 Distinction between some pairs (Chemical tests)


Functional derivatives of Carboxylic acids

14 B.9 Functional derivatives of Carboxylic acids
14 B. 10 Acyl halides
14 B. 11 Acid anhydrides
14 B. 12 Esters
14 B. 13 Acid Amides
14 B. 14 Some Commercially important compounds



NIOs Course material
http://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/313courseE/L29.pdf


Updated on 30 December 2019
2 January 2016

13. Organic Compounds with functional Groups Containing Oxygen - I (Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers) - JEE Main - Core Revision Points

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.

The hydroxy derivatives of aliphatic hydrocarbons are termed alcohols. They contain one or more hydroxyl (OH) groups.

Example:
Methyl Alcohol CH-3OH
Ehtyl alcohol C-2H-5OH also written as CH-3CH-2OH
Propyl alcohol C-3H-7OH also written as CH-3CH-2CH-2OH

Phenols are aromatic hydroxy compounds. In phenols, one or more hydroxyl group is directly attached to the aromatic (benzene) nucleus.

If OH group is not directly attached to be carbon atom in the benzene ring, but present in the molecule as a part of the alkyl side chain group, then the compound is not termed as phenol.It is called aromatic alcohol because it resembles aliphatic alcohols in its characteristics.

Sections in Chapters 13A and 13B

Part A: Alcohols and phenols
13A.1 Alcohols
13.2 Nomenclature of Alcohols
13.3 Isomerism in Alcohols
13.4 General methods of preparation of Alcohols
13.5 Industrial preparation of Alcohols
13.6 Physical properties of Alcohols
13.7 Chemical properties of Alcohols
13.8 Distinction between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols
13.9 Interconversions of alcohols


Phenols

13.10 Phenols
13.11 Nomenclature of Phenols
13.12 General methods of preparation of Phenols
13.13 Physical properties of Phenols
13.14 Chemical properties of Phenols
13.15 Distinction between alcohols and phenols
13.16 Some commercially important alcohols
13.17
13.18
13.19




Part B Ethers

13B.1 Nomenclature of Ethers
13.2 Isomerism in Ethers
13.3 General methods of preparation of Ethers
13.4 Physical properties of Ethers
13.5 Chemical properties of Ethers
13.6 Some commercially important compounds

Links to Core Revision Points in Sections in Chapters 13A and 13B

Part A: Alcohols and phenols

13A.1 Alcohols
13.2 Nomenclature of Alcohols
Alcohols - Introduction, Nomenclature
13.3 Isomerism in Alcohols

IIT JEE Revision - Ch. 25. Alcohols - Core Points

Practice problems 13A. 1 to 13A.5

13.4 General methods of preparation of Alcohols
13.5 Industrial preparation of Alcohols
Methods of Preparation of Alcohols

13.6 Physical properties of Alcohols
Alcohols - physical Properties

13.7 Chemical properties of Alcohols
Alcohols - Chemical Reactions
Alcohols oxidation
Alcohols Dehydration
Alcohols - Reaction with phosphorus halides
Alcohols -Reaction with active metals - acidic character
Alcohols - Reaction with Sodium
Alcohols Esterification

Alcohols - Reaction with ZnCl2/conc.-HCl - Lucas Test

13.8 Distinction between primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols
13.9 Interconversions of alcohols
Conversion of alcohols into aldehydes and ketones




Phenols

IIT JEE Revision -  Phenols - Core Points

13.10 Phenols
13.11 Nomenclature of Phenols
Phenols - Introduction, Nomenclature

13.12 General methods of preparation of Phenols
Phenols - Preparation

13.13 Physical properties of Phenols
Phenols - Physical properties

13.14 Chemical properties of Phenols
Phenols - Chemical Properties
Nitration of Phenol
Sulphonation of Phenol
Acidity of Phenols
Kolbe reaction Phenols

13.15 Distinction between alcohols and phenols
13.16 Some commercially important alcohols
13.17
13.18
13.19




Part B Ethers

13B.1 Nomenclature of Ethers
P.P. 13B.1 to 13B.3
13.2 Isomerism in Ethers
13.3 General methods of preparation of Ethers
P.P. 13B.4 to 13B.6
13.4 Physical properties of Ethers
13.5 Chemical properties of Ethers
13.6 Some commercially important compounds



NCERT Materials
http://www.ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/lech202.pdf


NIOS Material
http://www.nios.ac.in/media/documents/313courseE/L28.pdf

12. Stereochemistry - JEE Main - Core Revision Points

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.

Core Revision Points in Sections in the Chapter

12.1 Types of isomerism

Isomers are two types: constitutional (structural) and stereoisomers.

12.2 Geometrical isomerism
13.3 Confirmational isomerism
12.4 Optical activity



12.5 Chirality of objects and molecules
A chiral molecule is a molecule that is non superimposable on its mirror image.

12.6 Enantiomers
12.7 Configurations and Fisher Projections

12.8 Chiral or asymmetric carbon
The carbon atom which is bonded to four different groups or atoms is called chiral or asymmetric carbon.



12.9 Symmetry elements and chirality
12.10 Dissymetry – Condition for enantiomerism
12.11 Nomenclatures for stereo- isomers
12.12 Compounds containing two chiral centres

12.13 Meso compounds
Meso compound is a compound whose molecules are superimposable on their mirror images inspite of the presence of an assymmetric carbon atom. This is due to internal compensation.

12.14 Racemic mixtures and racemisation

12.15 Resolution
12.16 Importance of Stereo Chemistry





Sections in the Chapter

12.1 Types of isomerism
12.2 Geometrical isomerism
13.3 Confirmational isomerism
12.4 Optical activity
12.5 Chirality of objects and molecules
12.6 Enantiomers
12.7 Configurations and Fisher Projections
12.8 Chiral or asymmetric carbon
12.9 Symmetry elements and chirality
12.10 Dissymetry – Condition for enantiomerism
12.11 Nomenclatures for stereo- isomers
12.12 Compounds containing two chiral centres
12.13 Meso compounds
12.14 Racemic mixtures and racemisation
12.15 Resolution
12.16 Importance of Stereo Chemistry



Notes
https://www.utdallas.edu/~scortes/ochem/OChem1_Lecture/Class_Materials/09_stereo_notes.pdf

Updated on 2 January 2020
31 January 2016

Ch. 14. Organic Chemistry Some Basic Principles - JEE - CBSE Class XI - Revision Points and Problems

Sections in the chapter


14.1 Tetravalency of Carbon
14.2 Hybridization and Shapes of Molecules
14.3 Structural Representation of Organic Compounds
14.4 Functional Group
14.5 Homologous Series
14.6 Different Classes of Aliphatic Compounds and Their Nomenclature
14.7 General Rules for Naming Organic Compounds
14.8 Writing Structural Formula from the Name of the Compound
14.9 Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds
14.10 Isomerism
14.11 Electron Displacement in Covalent Bonds
14.12 Types of Bond Fission
14.13 Types of Attacking Reagents
14.14 Types of Organic Reactions

Revision Points - Organic Chemistry Some Basic Principles

14.1 Tetravalency of Carbon

Carbon shows tetra covalency and forms four covalent bonds by sharing of electrons with other atoms.

14.2 Hybridization and Shapes of Molecules

Alkanes involve sp3  hybridization of the carbon atom.
Alkenes involve sp2 hybridization of the carbon atom.
Alkynes involve sp  hybridization of the carbon atom.

14.3 Structural Representation of Organic Compounds

14.4 Functional Group

Functional group determines the characteristic properties of a compound.
Functional groups may be carbon-carbon multiple bond or carbon bonded to other atoms such as N, O, S or P.

14.5 Homologous Series

Homologoues series is a series of similarly constituted compounds in which the members possess the functional group and have similar chemical characteristics.

14.6 Different Classes of Aliphatic Compounds and Their Nomenclature
14.7 General Rules for Naming Organic Compounds
14.8 Writing Structural Formula from the Name of the Compound
14.9 Nomenclature of Aromatic Compounds.

14.10 Isomerism

Isomers are the compounds which have the same molecular formula but differ in their physical and chemical properties.

Structural isomers differ from one another in the arrangement of atoms of group of atoms within the molecules.

14.11 Electron Displacement in Covalent Bonds

Inductive effect

Electromeric effect

Hyperconjugation

Resonance


14.12 Types of Bond Fission

Homolytic fission

Heterolytic fission

Free radicals, carbocation, carbanion, carbenes are called reaction intermediaries


14.13 Types of Attacking Reagents

Electrophiles

Nucleophiles

14.14 Types of Organic Reactions

Substitution reactions:

Addition reactions

Elimination reactions

Rearrangement





http://makoxmcqs.com/jee-main/jee-main-chemistry-study-material/basic-principles-organic-chemistry/

http://ncert.nic.in/ncerts/l/keep512.pdf

http://www.targetpublications.org/download/11-chemistry-mcqs/12-basic-principles-and-techniques.pdf


Updated on 31 December 2019
2 February 2016

Alcohols - Reaction with ZnCl2/conc.-HCl - Lucas Test

Reaction with ZnCl2/conc.-HCl

This is a reaction or test to distinguish various categories of alcohols and is termed Lucas test.

In this test, an alcohol is treated with an equimolar mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid and anhydrous ZnCl2 (called Lucas reagent).

Updated on 30 December 2019
2 May 2008

Chapter 11. Hydrogen - JEE Main - Core Points for Revision

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.


Revision Points in the Sections in the Chapter - Jauhar

1. Unique position of hydrogen in the periodic table
Hydrogen is the only element which does not have neutrons in the nucleus.
Hydrogen resembles alkali metals as well as halogens in its properites.

2. Occurrence of hydrogen


3. Isotopes of hydrogen
4. Dihydrogen

5. Hydrides

6. Water

7. Heavy Water
Heavy water is D2O. It is used in nuclear reactors as moderator.

8. Hard and Soft Water

Calgon process is the most modern method of the softening of water.


9 Hydrogen Peroxide
Strength of hydrogen peroxide is usually expressed as volume. A 20 volume of H2O2 means that l litre of this solution will give 20 litres of oxygen at N.T.P.

10 Liquid Hydrogen as a Fuel
Liquid hydrogen has been used as an important rocket fuel.

11 Hydrogen Economy



Sections in the Chapter - Jauhar

1. Unique position of hydrogen in the periodic table
2. Occurrence of hydrogen
3. Isotopes of hydrogen
4. Dihydrogen
5. Hydrides
6. Water
7. Heavy Water
8. Hard and Soft Water
9 Hydrogen Peroxide
10 Liquid Hydrogen as a Fuel
11 Hydrogen Economy


Updated on 2 January 2020

21 May 2015

8 - p-Block Elements - JEE Main - Core Points for Revision

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.


Sections in the chapter – Jauhar Text Book 12th Class



Study Plan

Group 13 elements


Boron, Aluminum, Gallium, Indium, Thallium, Nohonium

8.1 Occurrence and their uses
8.2 General characteristics of Group 13 elements
8.3 Trends in chemical reactivity

8.4 Aluminium: Extraction and properties


Group 14 Elements

Carbon, Silicon, Germanium, Tin, Lead, Flerovium

8.5 Occurrence and uses
8.6 General characteristics of group 14 elements
8.7 Trends in chemical reactivity

Silica - Detailed

8.8 Forms of silica
8.9 Silicates
8.10 Silicones

8.11 Tin and lead

Group 15 elements

Nitrogen, Phosphorous, Arsenic, Antimony, Bismuth, Moscovium

8.12 Occurrence and uses
8.13 General characteristics of group 15 elements
8.14 Trends in chemical reactivity

Phosphorous - Detailed

8.15 Production of phosphorus
8.16 Allotropic forms of phosphorus
8.17 Phosphine
8.18 Structure of some compounds of phosphorus

Group 16 elements

Oxygen, Sulphur, Selenium, Tellurium, Polonium

8.19 Occurrence and uses
8.20 General characteristics of group 16 elements
8.21 Trends in chemical reactivity
8.22 Important compounds of group 16 elements

Sulphur - Detailed

8.23 Production of sulphur
8.24 allotropes of sulphur
8.25 Sulphuric acid

Group 17 elements - Halogens

Flourine, Bromine, Chlorin, Iodine, Astatine

8.26 Occurrence and uses
8.27 General characteristics of group 17 elements
8.28 Trends in chemical reactivity


8.29 Bleaching powder
8.30 Interhalogen compounds

Group 18 elements - Noble Gases

Helium, Neon, Argon, Krypton, Xenon, Radon


8.31 Occurrence of noble gases
8.32 Isolation of noble gases and uses
8.32 General characteristics of group 18 elements

8.33 Compounds of noble gases







Updated  2 January 2020  31 Jan 2016, 22 May 2015

Chemistry - Open Text Book

https://cnx.org/contents/havxkyvS@12.1:uXg0kUa-@5/Introduction





Preface
1 Essential Ideas
Introduction
1.1 Chemistry in Context   Chemistry in Context
1.2 Phases and Classification of Matter
1.3 Physical and Chemical Properties
1.4 Measurements
1.5 Measurement Uncertainty, Accuracy, and Precision
1.6 Mathematical Treatment of Measurement Results
2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions
Introduction
2.1 Early Ideas in Atomic Theory
2.2 Evolution of Atomic Theory
2.3 Atomic Structure and Symbolism
2.4 Chemical Formulas
2.5 The Periodic Table
2.6 Molecular and Ionic Compounds
2.7 Chemical Nomenclature
3 Composition of Substances and Solutions
Introduction
3.1 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept
3.2 Determining Empirical and Molecular Formulas
3.3 Molarity
3.4 Other Units for Solution Concentrations
4 Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
Introduction
4.1 Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
4.2 Classifying Chemical Reactions
4.3 Reaction Stoichiometry
4.4 Reaction Yields
4.5 Quantitative Chemical Analysis
5 Thermochemistry
Introduction
5.1 Energy Basics
5.2 Calorimetry
5.3 Enthalpy
6 Electronic Structure and Periodic Properties of Elements
Introduction
6.1 Electromagnetic Energy
6.2 The Bohr Model
6.3 Development of Quantum Theory
6.4 Electronic Structure of Atoms (Electron Configurations)
6.5 Periodic Variations in Element Properties
7 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Geometry
Introduction
7.1 Ionic Bonding
7.2 Covalent Bonding
7.3 Lewis Symbols and Structures
7.4 Formal Charges and Resonance
7.5 Strengths of Ionic and Covalent Bonds
7.6 Molecular Structure and Polarity
8 Advanced Theories of Covalent Bonding
Introduction
8.1 Valence Bond Theory
8.2 Hybrid Atomic Orbitals
8.3 Multiple Bonds
8.4 Molecular Orbital Theory
9 Gases
Introduction
9.1 Gas Pressure
9.2 Relating Pressure, Volume, Amount, and Temperature: The Ideal Gas Law
9.3 Stoichiometry of Gaseous Substances, Mixtures, and Reactions
9.4 Effusion and Diffusion of Gases
9.5 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory
9.6 Non-Ideal Gas Behavior
10 Liquids and Solids
Introduction
10.1 Intermolecular Forces
10.2 Properties of Liquids
10.3 Phase Transitions
10.4 Phase Diagrams
10.5 The Solid State of Matter
10.6 Lattice Structures in Crystalline Solids
11 Solutions and Colloids
Introduction
11.1 The Dissolution Process
11.2 Electrolytes
11.3 Solubility
11.4 Colligative Properties
11.5 Colloids
12 Kinetics
Introduction
12.1 Chemical Reaction Rates
12.2 Factors Affecting Reaction Rates
12.3 Rate Laws
12.4 Integrated Rate Laws
12.5 Collision Theory
12.6 Reaction Mechanisms
12.7 Catalysis
13 Fundamental Equilibrium Concepts
Introduction
13.1 Chemical Equilibria
13.2 Equilibrium Constants
13.3 Shifting Equilibria: Le Châtelier’s Principle
13.4 Equilibrium Calculations
14 Acid-Base Equilibria
Introduction
14.1 Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases
14.2 pH and pOH
14.3 Relative Strengths of Acids and Bases
14.4 Hydrolysis of Salt Solutions
14.5 Polyprotic Acids
14.6 Buffers
14.7 Acid-Base Titrations
15 Equilibria of Other Reaction Classes
Introduction
15.1 Precipitation and Dissolution
15.2 Lewis Acids and Bases
15.3 Multiple Equilibria
16 Thermodynamics
Introduction
16.1 Spontaneity
16.2 Entropy
16.3 The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics
16.4 Free Energy
17 Electrochemistry
Introduction
17.1 Balancing Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
17.2 Galvanic Cells
17.3 Standard Reduction Potentials
17.4 The Nernst Equation
17.5 Batteries and Fuel Cells
17.6 Corrosion
17.7 Electrolysis
18 Representative Metals, Metalloids, and Nonmetals
Introduction
18.1 Periodicity
18.2 Occurrence and Preparation of the Representative Metals
18.3 Structure and General Properties of the Metalloids
18.4 Structure and General Properties of the Nonmetals
18.5 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Hydrogen
18.6 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Carbonates
18.7 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Nitrogen
18.8 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Phosphorus
18.9 Occurrence, Preparation, and Compounds of Oxygen
18.10 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Sulfur
18.11 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Halogens
18.12 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of the Noble Gases
19 Transition Metals and Coordination Chemistry
Introduction
19.1 Occurrence, Preparation, and Properties of Transition Metals and Their Compounds
19.2 Coordination Chemistry of Transition Metals
19.3 Spectroscopic and Magnetic Properties of Coordination Compounds
20 Organic Chemistry
Introduction
20.1 Hydrocarbons
20.2 Alcohols and Ethers
20.3 Aldehydes, Ketones, Carboxylic Acids, and Esters
20.4 Amines and Amides
21 Nuclear Chemistry
Introduction
21.1 Nuclear Structure and Stability
21.2 Nuclear Equations
21.3 Radioactive Decay
21.4 Transmutation and Nuclear Energy
21.5 Uses of Radioisotopes
21.6 Biological Effects of Radiation
The Periodic Table
Essential Mathematics
Units and Conversion Factors
Fundamental Physical Constants
Water Properties
Composition of Commercial Acids and Bases
Standard Thermodynamic Properties for Selected Substances
Ionization Constants of Weak Acids
Ionization Constants of Weak Bases
Solubility Products
Formation Constants for Complex Ions
Standard Electrode (Half-Cell) Potentials
Half-Lives for Several Radioactive Isotopes


The Scientific Method

Chemistry is a science based on observation and experimentation. Doing chemistry involves attempting to answer questions and explain observations in terms of the laws and theories of chemistry, using procedures that are accepted by the scientific community. There is no single route to answering a question or explaining an observation, but there is an aspect common to every approach: Each uses knowledge based on experiments that can be reproduced to verify the results. Some routes involve a hypothesis, a tentative explanation of observations that acts as a guide for gathering and checking information. We test a hypothesis by experimentation, calculation, and/or comparison with the experiments of others and then refine it as needed.

Some hypotheses are attempts to explain the behavior that is summarized in laws. The laws of science summarize a vast number of experimental observations, and describe or predict some facet of the natural world. If such a hypothesis turns out to be capable of explaining a large body of experimental data, it can reach the status of a theory. Scientific theories are well-substantiated, comprehensive, testable explanations of particular aspects of nature. Theories are accepted because they provide satisfactory explanations, but they can be modified if new data become available. The path of discovery that leads from question and observation to law or hypothesis to theory, combined with experimental verification of the hypothesis and any necessary modification of the theory, is called the scientific method.
 Chemistry in Context

2. Solid State - JEE Main - Core Revision Points

Importance of  Core Revision Points: Core Revision Points are important because if you remember them strongly, many more points related to them will come out of your memory and help you to answer question and problems. Read them many times and make sure you remember them very strongly.

JEE Syllabus (2015)  on Solid State Topic

Solid State: Classification of solids: molecular, ionic, covalent and metallic solids, amorphous and crystalline solids (elementary idea); Unit cell and lattices, packing in solids (fcc, bcc and hcp lattices), voids,   Bragg’s Law and its applications; calculations involving unit cell parameters, imperfection in solids; Electrical, magnetic and dielectric properties.


Jauhar, CBSE XII class

Sections in the Chapter

2.1 Space Lattices and Unit Cell
2.2 Close Packing in Crystalline Solids
2.3 Interstitial Sites or Interstitial Voids
2.4 Types of Cubic Crystals and Number of Atoms per Unit Cell
2.5 Experimental Methods of Determining Crystal Structure: X Rays Diffraction
2.6 Coordination Number and Radius Ratio
2.7 Ionic Radii
2.8 Calculation of Density of a Crystal from its Structure
2.9 Structures of Ionic Compounds
2.10 Imperfections in solids
2.11 Properties of solids
2.12 Amorphous solids

Solid State - Revision Points

The main content covered in the chapter is about the formation of crystals in solids. Last section 2.12 is about amorphous solids which are not crystalline solids.


Solids can be broadly classified into two categories: crystalline and amorphous.

Crystalline solids

The outstanding features are its flat faces and share edges which in a well developed form are usually arranged symmetrically.  Therefore, there is a high degree of internal order throughout the crystal. There is a definite pattern constantly repeating in space that forms the crystal. This order in the crystal is known as long-range order.

Amorphous solids

Amorphous solids are not crystals and they do not have long range order but have short-range order. An ordered arrangement exists around some atoms, molecules or ions only up to short distances. The same order will not be found around other atoms or molecules in the solid at another place. In many was amorphous solids are more closely related to liquids and are therefore regarded as supercooled liquids with high viscosity.  Some crystalline materials can be converted into amorphous or glassy form by rapidly cooling the melt. Freezing the vapours also gives rise to amorphous solids.

Bonds Present in  Solids

Molecular bonds:  In these solids, the constituent particles are molecules. The molecules are held together by weak Van der Waals forces. Examples are iodine, ice and solid carbon dioxide.

Ionic bonds:  Ionic solids have positively and negatively charged ions which are arranged in crystal form and held together by strong electrostatic forces. Examples are salts like NaCl, NaNO3, LiF and Na2SO4 etc.

Covalent bonds:  In these solids, the constituent particles are atoms and they are held together by covalent bonds. Examples are diamond, silicon carbide, and silica.


Metallic bonds: In solids with metallic bonds, positive kernels are immersed in a sea of mobile electrons. The forces between the constituents, positive kernels and electrons form the metallic bonds. These bonds are present in metals like copper, nickel etc.

2.1 Space Lattice and Unit Cell

The crystalline solids have their constituent particles - molecules, ions or atoms at specific locations in a three dimensional space, the basic shape of which repeats many times to form the crystalline solid.  The arrangement of this infinite set of points at which the constituent particles of the solid exist is called space lattice.

Space Lattice

A space lattice is a regular arrangement of the  constituent particles of a crystalline solid in three dimensional space. These points are called lattice points.

Unit Cell

A unit cell is the smallest repeating unit in space lattice.

Parameters to describe a unit cell

Six parameters are required.  The unit cell is assumed to be formed of straightline in three axes.

These the three basic vectors along three crystallographic axes are termed (a,b, and c). Three angles are there between the crystallographic axes (α,β,γ). The angle α is between the edges b and c, The angle β is between edges c and a. The angle γ is between the edges b and a.

Seven Crystal Systems

Crystals can be classified into seven categories

Triclinic -  a is not equal to b  is not equal to - (α,β,γ) are different and not equal to 90 degrees

Monoclinic

Orthoclinic

Trigonal or Rhombohedral

Cubic

Tetragonal

Hexagonal


2.2   Close Packing in Crystalline Solids

In the formation of crystals, closed packing of the constituent particles takes place.



Square Pattern

To understand arrangement of the particles in a solid one can visualise four particles arranged as a square. In this one particle assumed as a sphere is above another particles and four such sphere form a square and the pattern is repeated. But this pattern is not the usual pattern because only 52.4% of the available space becomes occupied in this square pattern of packing.

Hexagonal Pattern

In hexagonal close packing of particles (assumed as spheres), the spheres in the second row are placed in the depressions between the spheres in the first row. (In earlier square pattern, a sphere is placed on another sphere. But now a sphere is placed in the depression between two spheres in  the row below. In this packing, 60.4% of space gets occupied. Hence this hexagonal close packing gives more close packing.

Co-ordination Number

The number of spheres which are touching a given sphere in packing arrangement is called co-ordination number. Thus in two dimensional representation coordination number is 4 in square arrangement and six in hexagonal arrangement.

Good web page for the above topics Lattice Structures in Crystalline Solids  https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/chapter/10-6-lattice-structures-in-crystalline-solids/

2.3 Interstitial Sites or Interstitial Voids

In the packed structure of the crystalline solid, there are hollow spaces between particles. These holes are voids are called interstitial sites or interstitial voids. Two important interstitial sites are 1. Tetrahedral interstitial site.  (2) Octahedral interstitial site.


2.4 Types of Cubic Crystals and Number of Atoms per Unit Cell

There are three common types of cubic crystals.

1. Simple cubic
2. Body centred cubic
3. Face centred cubic or cubic close packing

2.5 Experimental Methods of Determining Crystal Structure: X Rays Diffraction

The structure of solid is studied by X-ray diffraction methods.

Bragg Equation:

n lamba = 2d sin theta

where d = distance between the planes of the constituent particles of the  crystal.
lamba = wave length of the x-ray used.
n =  1,2,3 etc.  standing for the serial order of the diffracted beam.


2.6 Coordination Number and Radius Ratio
2.7 Ionic Radii
2.8 Calculation of Density of a Crystal from its Structure
2.9 Structures of Ionic Compounds
2.10 Imperfections in solids
2.11 Properties of solids
2.12 Amorphous solids


close packed structure of solids (cubic), packing in fcc, bcc and hcp lattices;

packing of crystals;
Body centred cubic(bcc),
Hexagonal closed packed (hcp) and

cubical close packed (ccp)

Point defects: Schottsky defects, Frenkel defects


Practice questions

http://makoxmcqs.com/chemistry-mcqs-for-iit-jee-s-block-elements-mcq-practice-sheet/


See an Oxford Video on Crystal Structure
09. Geometry of Solids I: Crystal Structure in Real Space
http://podcasts.ox.ac.uk/09-geometry-solids-i-crystal-structure-real-space

Good Websites for Solid State Topic

Updated on 27 July 2019
6 June 2015
Originally published  22 May 2015